Excessive dietary protein may affect MP use because of energetic costs of excreting excess N. Amino acids also may influence post-ruminal digestion. Therefore, two experiments were designed to evaluate the effects of MP intake and post-ruminal flow of AA on growth performance and pancreatic digestive enzymes. In experiment 1, treatments supplied different amounts of MP intake to cattle and the effects on growth performance and feeding behavior were evaluated. In experiment 2, duodenal infusion of glutamate or casein was examined and the effects on pancreatic enzymes were measured. Experiment 1 suggests that feeding steers 906 g MP/d in finishing diets supplied enough MP for the greatest growth performance and carcass characteristics. Interestingly, MP intake caused different responses on feeding behavior with greater effects on steers fed 626 and 1444 g MP/d. In experiment 2, casein infusion increased α-amylase activity but not trypsin activity. Glutamate did not influence pancreatic digestive enzymes.

No description available.

No description available.

Two experiments were conducted with sheep to determine the nutritional value of 'Lathco' flatpea (Lathyrus sylvestris) hay. In experiment 1, a finishing trial was conducted with 50 group fed crossbred lambs (25 ewes and 25 wethers) fed diets consisting of 70% chopped forage and 30% ground corn grain for 70 d. Five pens of five wethers and five pens of five ewes were selffed diets in which the forage consisted of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 proportions of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and flatpea hay. Feed efficiencies decreased linearly (P<.05) as flatpea increased in the diet. Linear decreases (P<.05) were obtained in kidney and pelvic fat, backfat, leg conformation, and yield grade with increased flatpea in the diet. Blood urea-N (BUN), ruminal pH and NH3-N increased (P<.005) as proportion of flatpea increased. Total volatile fatty acid (VFA) and acetate concentration decreased linearly (P<.005) and propionate, isovalerate, and valerate levels increased linearly (P<.01) with increased proportions of flatpea hay. In experiment 2, 30 wether lambs were fed diets consisting of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100 proportions of chopped alfalfa and flatpea hays in a digestion trial. Neutral detergent fiber (NOE), acid detergent fiber (ADE), cellulose, hemicellulose and energy digestibilities decreased linearly (P<.01) with increased levels of flatpea hay. Nitrogen retention was not different between sheep fed the different diets. Apparent absorbtion and retention of Ca decreased linearly (P<.05) with increased level of flatpea hay Ruminal pH and NHa-N, and BUN increased linearly (P<.OOl) as flatpea was increased in the diet. Ruminal total VEA, acetate and acetate to propionate ratio decreased linearly (P<.001) and propionate, isobutyrate, isovalerate, and valerate levels increased linearly (P<.001) as level of flatpea increased. / Master of Science

Equations to predict daily dry matter intake (DMI) of individual animals were developed with 118 Holstein heifers fed totally mixed rations (TMR). Animals grouped according to body weight (136, 227, 317 kg) were fed TMR (corn silage, ground hay, high moisture corn, soybean meal) once daily for 28 days. Rations were balanced to mean body weight according to National Research Council (NRC) recommendations for protein, vitamins and minerals, and to 85, 95, 105, and 115% of recommendation for energy. Independent variables were body weight (BWT, kg/day) daily body weight gain (GAIN, kg), environmental temperature (AMBT, °C), ration acid detergent fiber (ADF, percent of dry matter), neutral detergent fiber (NDF, percent of dry matter), net energy for maintenance and gain (NEM, NEG, megacalories), total digestible nutrients (TDN, percent of dry matter), and bulk density (BULK, g/ml as fed). Squared terms, appropriate interaction terms, and metabolic body weight (MBWT, kg^.75) were included in the model. Stepwise regression was utilized to generate two models, simplified and expanded. Simplified model was: DMI (kg/day) = -29.86 + (-.54E-05 * BWT²) + (.157 * MBWT) + (2.090 * GAIN) + (-.118 * GAIN²) + (.730 * TDN) + (-.005 * TDN²) + (-.001 * BWT * GAIN) + (-.019 * TDN * GAIN); n = 4797, r² = .59, s_y.x = 1.18. Expanded model was: DMI (kg/ day) = -1906.91 + (-0.04 * BWT) + (0.37 * MBWT) + (32.36 * ADF) + (2305.51 * NEM) + (-664.06 * NEG) + (-0.08 * AMBT) + (-0.13 * ADFSQ) + (-637.68 * NEMSQ) + (42.31 * NEGSQ) + (-5.35 * BULKSQ) + (0.001 * AMBTSQ) + (-1.56E-04 * BWT * ADF) + (8.873E-05 * BWT * AMBT) + (246.30 * NEM * NEG) + (-21.30 * NEM * ADF) + (7.83 * NEG * ADF) + (0.04 * NEG * AMBT) + (0.01 * GAIN * ADF) + (-0.01 * GAIN * AMBT); n = 4429, r² = .65, s_y.x = 1.09. Predicted intakes by simplified equation agree with those of NRC at TDN recommended by NRC and .7 kg/day. Computerized ration formulation systems were developed using simplified model. Expanded model requires further refinement prior to incorporation into a ration formulation system. / Ph. D.

No description available.

The focus of this thesis was to analyze the least cost of producing rations for ducks in three age categories from a mixture of conventional feed ingredients and three different processed food waste products and to examine the financial and economic feasibility of establishing an industrial plant to produce these food waste products in the Montreal region. The first part of the thesis was investigated through the use of a linear programming model. The effect of recognizing the variability of protein levels in the various feed ingredients was examined through the use of chance-constrained programming. / The second part of the thesis was examined using economic and financial analyses for the investment. The basic plant requirements to produce the three processed food waste products were the same, however energy costs were different for the three products. Revenue was generated from tipping fees and the sale of the three processed food waste products. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

A major obstacle facing the successful creation of an African aquaculture industry, based upon Oreochromids, is the irregular supply of good quality fish seed. There are several causative biological processes behind its irregular supply. The aim of this research was therefore to determine the basic requirements for the establishment and maintenance of a small breeding facility, for O. mossambicus. The goal was to make a unit that was simple and which could be easily replicated in rural, satellite aquaculture seed stations. The results obtained illustrate that a small reproduction unit can produce large quantities of healthy 90-day fry. Asynchronous hatching of the eggs and spawning asynchrony in female Oreochromis mossambicus are two elements which negatively affect uniformity in the fry produced. Typical fish seed production uses large ponds partitioned into breeding allotments or a series of breeding pools. While the earthen ponds provide a substrate in which a nest can be excavated, its presence is not required for mating success in the closely related O. niloticus (Linneaus 1758). Female mate choice, as well as apparent fecundity, according to nest size has been clearly recorded in related cichlids but no investigations have been made as to nest size and spawning synchrony in O. mossambicus. The main focus of this investigation was to ascertain whether O. mossambicus would accept artificial nest substitutes in preference to their own constructed ones and secondly, whether different alternatives would elicit different levels of acceptance. The observed results indicate a ready acceptance for artificial nest alternatives, with nest lip height being prioritised by the fish . The implications thereof are discussed in relation to the potential for optimization of breeding arenas for O. mossambicus by the provision of artificial nests whose dimensions satisfy both male and female preferences. In established communities, Oreochromis mossambicus display various complex and ritualised behaviours during stable and disruptive events. The aim of this research was primarily to produce a glossary of behaviours defining these interactions, particularly with reference to male-male behaviours. Three males and six females were allowed to acclimatise over one month, with various social groupings being established within the first few days. Results from this study illustrated not only a dynamic social structure, signaled via various chemosensory and visual methods, but also supported recent findings in apparent male-male courtship and the underlying ii causes. Furthermore, the observed male-male activity of the nestholder malesfirmly corroborate the current practice in aquaculture whereby only one male is allocated per breeding arena. The use of artificial incubation of Oreochromis spp. eggs has become widespread in high intensity fish seed production. Various types of incubator exist, and their selection is dependent on the specific attributes of the egg to be incubated. Currently available incubators are typically of a funnel (up-flow) or round bottomed (down-flow) design. Neither permits easy access to the eggs, which is particularly important when dealing with poor quality water as is typically found in rural areas. The aim of this study was to devise and test an easy-to-use incubator, applicable to rural seed production projects, which offers advantages over currently available incubator types. The final design, WETNURSE Type II, offered improved hatching rates over Type I, with a mean hatching success of 75%. While falling short of the desired 80% success rate (Rana 1986), the various other benefits provided by the design justify further optimization and testing. Three distinct populations of O. mossambicus, representing populations of inbred, randomly mated and genetically unknown (wild-caught) pedigree were analysed according to their food conversion efficiency (FCE). The intra- and inter-sample crosses were done with single males in order to produce half-sib progeny batches which allowed for the assessment of sire influences on the FCE of the progeny batches. The results show that the population of unknown pedigree is comparable to that of the randomly mating population, indicating the presence of sufficient genetic variation to permit further selection; the genetic contribution of the males to their respective progeny was insignificant in relation to that made by the female.

With the narrow margin of profit in the broiler enterprise, how can producers increase profit potential? It is not an easy task to answer this question since the net financial return depends on many factors; some are related to the animal, some to the feed, some to the environment and others are outside the production system, like availability and cost of labour and capital. Many researchers have attempted to improve the efficiency of the system using alternative management strategies and to develop a unified theory that could simultaneously evaluate all the relevant factors and the interactions between them. Simulation models are seen as the most promising means of moving this subject forward. Geneticists are continually improving the potential growth rate of broilers, yet there has been little change in feed specifications for these birds over the past few decades. Only recently has it been possible to make use of simulation models to optimise the feeds and feeding programs of modern broiler strains at a commercial level, but little testing of these programs has been carried out. What is needed is a thorough investigation of these models, which at present are based on an individual, as opposed to a population response. Modelling plays an increasingly important part in animal science and research as a way of organizing and evaluating the large body of existing knowledge. With the use of an accurate description of the potential growth rates of broiler genotypes, it is possible to make more efficient use of growth models which are becoming more abundant in the industry and which, in turn, enable the nutritionist or producer to predict the performance of animals when subjected to a given feed or feeding programme. The predictions made by most of the growth models now available are based on individual animals, and the results obtained may be inadequate in optimising the nutrient requirements of a broiler population because of the variation that exists in these populations. Variation in performance traits in broilers may be the result of variation in the genotype, in the environmental conditions within the house, and in the composition of the feed offered to the birds, and these sources of variation cannot all be accommodated in a model that simulates the food intake and growth of just one bird. But if variation is to be incorporated into growth models, it is necessary to ascertain the effects of variation in the various genetic parameters on the mean response of the population. A sensitivity analysis is useful in accomplishing this objective. Similarly, it is important to know what the optimum size of a simulated population should be, that takes account both of the accuracy of the simulation and the time taken to complete the exercise. This is especially important when optimisation routines are followed, as such calculations are time consuming. As a means of addressing these issues, simulation exercises were conducted using EFG Broiler Growth Model version 6 and EFG Broiler Optimiser Model version 1 (EFG Software, 2006) to determine: (a) whether it is worth generating a population when optimising feeds and feeding programs for broilers, rather than using the average individual, (b) the size of the population required to obtain an accurate estimate of the population response when optimising the feeding program for different objective functions, (c) the effect of changing the value of genetic parameters such as mature protein weight, rate of maturing, feathering rate and the maximum lipid:protein ratio in the gain on the optimum amino acid contents and nutrient densities of broiler feeds, and (d) the effect of variation in nutrient composition of different batches of feed, which have the same nutrient profile but different qualities of the main protein source, on broiler performance. A review of sources of variation in the nutrient content of poultry feed was conducted, and simulation exercises were carried out to determine to what extent broiler performance is affected by the segregation or breakage of pellets into small pieces at the time of delivery and along the feed conveyor within the broiler house, by the change in nutrient quality that might occur along the conveyor, and by the microclimates that develop in a longitudinally ventilated broiler house. The tendency in broiler marketing in most parts of the world is to sell broilers cut up, as portions or deboned after evisceration, rather than selling whole birds. Estimation of the growth rates of carcass parts is therefore of considerable importance if simulation models are to be useful in optimising the feeds and feeding programmes of broilers under different conditions. Allometric equations are used in the EFG broiler growth model to predict the weights of these carcass parts from the weight of body protein at the time. These equations are based on data collected many years ago, and it would be useful to determine whether they are still relevant in the face of announcements by the major broiler breeding companies that tremendous strides have been made in improving breast meat yield, for example, by judicious selection. For the purpose of this investigation it was important to determine to what extent the weights of the physical parts varied at the same body protein weight, thereby enabling a more accurate estimation of the variation that could be expected in these weights when developing a population response model. Towards this end, experiments were conducted to determine the effect of dietary protein content on the performance of Cobb and Ross broilers, including mortality and uniformity, and on the allometric relationships between the physical and chemical components of the body and body protein. The overall objective of these exercises was to address issues relating to the use of simulation models in predicting food intake and growth of broilers, in optimising the amino acid contents and nutrient densities of feeds for broilers, and in representing a population of broilers when the performance of only one bird is simulated at a time. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

With the worldwide increase in consumption of poultry meat in recent years, the production of hatchable eggs from broiler breeding stock has become a critically important component of the poultry industry. Surprisingly, a perusal of the literature pertaining to broiler breeder nutrition leads to the conclusion that research nutritionists have neglected these birds. It has been assumed in many cases that the research on laying hens is applicable to broiler breeders. However, fundamental differences are apparent between the two strains that should be investigated more comprehensively if the potential of broiler breeder hens is to be achieved. Commercial laying hens have been selected predominantly for increased egg production whereas broilers have been selected for early rapid growth rate. By selecting for improved growth rate, both food consumption and mature weight of these birds has increased (Reddy, 1996), but because of the negative genetic correlation between body weight and egg production (Robinson et al, 1993) reproductive performance has not been improved. Broiler breeder hens differ from commercial laying hens, by their non-normal frequency distribution of egg outputs, their considerable lipid reserves, and by the fact that many do not lay in closed cycle. The practice of restricting feed intake during both the rearing and laying periods has become a standard management procedure in commercial broiler breeder operations and this differs from the manner in which commercial hens are fed. This raises important issues regarding the requirements of these birds for energy, amino acids and other essential nutrients, as the birds do not have the opportunity of meeting their nutrient requirements by adjusting food intake upwards when one or more of these nutrients is deficient in the feed. It is the duty of the nutritionist to provide the correct daily allowance of each nutrient in order to achieve maximum egg output by the flock, but given the variation between hens within a flock, such decisions need to be made on both biological and economic grounds. Improved strains are continually being produced by breeder companies, which exhibit better growth, feed efficiency and productivity. The way in which broiler breeder hens were fed in the past might not be the most effective way to feed the latest strains. Getting the right amount of feed with the right nutrient levels at the right time is the most important part of feeding broiler breeders, and to succeed their daily nutrient requirements need to be known. Information concerning the nutritional requirements of broiler breeder hens is limited in comparison to other types of domesticated poultry. However, enough information is available concerning energy and amino acid nutrition of this type of poultry to enable one to develop models useful for constructing accurate feeding programmes. The most appropriate way of estimating the nutrient requirement of broiler breeder hens during the laying period, or of optimising a feeding strategy, is by the use of simulation models. Emmans and Fisher (1986) suggested that a better approach to the problem of describing requirements and of expressing them quantitatively can be achieved by considering: firstly, the bird’s characteristics, secondly by defining resource scales carefully and thirdly by considering the quantities of each resource needed per unit of function. This approach has a greater chance of success than attempting to measure requirements by direct experimentation. Energy and amino acids are required for growth of tissues, egg production, maintaining normal body temperature, vital life functions and activity. For development of feeding programmes, we are most concerned with the three primary components, maintenance, growth and egg output. There are a number of factors that impact on the total nutrient requirement of the breeder. The maintenance component is affected by body size, environmental temperature, level of activity (housed in floor pens vs. cages) and possibly breed. Regarding the growth component, in the case of broiler breeders during lay the composition of growth needs to be addressed: whether this is only lipid gain or also includes protein gain. Lastly, the egg component is influenced by egg mass and hen age. In order to calculate energy and amino acid requirements, one must have knowledge of the requirements per unit of body protein weight, growth rate and egg mass. By continually monitoring the environmental conditions in the broiler breeder house, as well as body weight, egg weight and egg number, it is possible to estimate the state of the hens at any time and hence the optimum nutrient concentrations that should be fed the next day of the laying period by using the Breeder Model presented in this thesis. Optimising the feeding of broiler breeders during the laying period is made difficult because of the many interacting factors influencing their performance All the hens are not the same, they are not housed in the same environments, and the costs of feeding and the revenue derived from the sale of the product differs from one locality to another. The solution to this problem lies in the use of simulation models to describe the causal relationship between inputs and the predicted responses. This thesis explored new concepts and components for a simulation model to predict the nutrient requirement and performance of broiler breeders after sexual maturity. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.