This thesis looks at the effects of flexible working arrangements on workers' labour market outcomes. The particular type of flexible working arrangement analysed in this thesis is called "flexitime". This is an arrangement which gives workers the freedom to choose when to start and end their work. Flexitime provides workers with a new way to cater to their domestic responsibilities and in turn may reduce the costs of participating in the labour market. Therefore, it is closely connected with workers' compensation structure, human capital accumulation process, labour supply and job mobility. The effects of flexitime on workers' labour market outcomes are analysed from three aspects: wage, labour supply, and job mobility. The first chapter gives an introduction and overview of the thesis. The second chapter is a study on the compensating wage differentials associated with flexitime. In general I do not find convincing evidence showing the existence of compensating wage differentials associated with flexitime. One possible reason might be that flexitime brings additional benefits to firms (such as increased productivity and reduced turnover rate) so that firms may not necessarily need to reduce actual wages in exchange for flexitime provision. In the third chapter, I develop a model describing how flexitime may affect workers' labour supply decisions. The main finding of the model is that flexitime will increase workers' labour supply when the benefit associated with flexitime (increased child care production efficiency) is high relative to the cost of wage reduction (prediction 1). Meanwhile, the model also predicts that flexitime causes high human capital workers to increase their labour supply more than low human capital workers (prediction 2). Empirical findings show that flexitime is positively associated with working mothers' labour market hours, which confirms model prediction 1. However, there is arguably insufficient empirical evidence verifying model prediction 2. The fourth chapter considers the relationship between flexitime and workers' job satisfaction and job mobility. Flexitime is associated with high job satisfaction levels for both male and female workers. It also reduces the probability of quitting for female workers with young children. Male workers' job mobility decisions are not significantly affected by flexitime. The fifth chapter gives the conclusion of the thesis.

Interest in flexible work arrangements has proliferated in the last years, fuelled by technological advancements that allow people to work from anywhere at any time. This systematic literature review explores the impact of flexibility in time and place of work on intra-group relations and subsequent effects on group-level outcomes. Findings suggest that flexibility in place of work has positive effects on employee-supervisor relationships but negative effects on co-worker relationships. Although teleworkers remain well connected to their co-workers and overall workgroup communication does not appear to change, informal socialisation processes are affected. Knowledge sharing and creation is subsequently challenged. Furthermore, managers of mixed workgroups face issues of fairness and justice as well as challenges of creating and maintaining group cohesion when some of their employees are not always present. However, little is known of how flexibility in time of work impacts intra-group relations and group outcomes from groups containing flexible workers have not been explored. This paper therefore identifies significant gaps in the literature and presents opportunities for further research.

The Fast Moving Consumable Goods industry is characterized by competitiveness, on going change and high turnover. To stay competitive, retain talent and keep up with these fast paced systems, organisations have to capitalise on the potential of their workforce to outperform the rest. Giving the increasing demand on both employer and employee regarding innovation, creativity and shared knowledge, increased importance of employee well-being being viewed as sources of “prosperity” for organisations, are critical. Organisations must find a way to enable their employees to flourish. Flourishing refers to high levels of wellbeing in terms of feeling well and functioning well (Keyes, 2007). Subjective well-being refers to the levels of positive and negative affect and the overall satisfaction with life. Psychological well-being consists of individuals’ positive functioning in life. Social wellbeing relates to individuals’ evaluation of their functioning on a public and social level. Individuals spend a large part of their adult life at work in organisational environments that are dynamic and ever-changing. The domain of work is a critical part of existence and plays a dynamic role in the development, expression and maintenance of well-being. Globally the workplace is recognised as a key setting for focusing on improving the well-being of employees due to its compelling impact on a variety of organisational outcomes. Flourishing is thus not only relevant in everyday life, but also occurs in the work and organisational environment. Limited studies regarding flourishing in work and organisational contexts exist and central to studying, understanding, and explaining flourishing at work, are valid and reliable instruments. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a multidimensional scale that measures work flourishing. Furthermore, to investigate the impact of various factors in the work and organisational environment on flourishing in the FMCG industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used to gather data regarding the flourishing of employees in the FMCG industry in South Africa. A stratified random sample (N = 779) was iv taken of employees in an alcoholic beverage company in South Africa. The measuring instruments used were the self-developed Flourishing-at-Work Scale, Flourishing-at-Work Scale Short Form, parts of the Job-Demand-Recourse Scale, Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ), and a Biographical Questionnaire. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis, descriptive statistics, regression analysis and latent class analysis were applied. Structural equation modelling was used to test a structural model of work flourishing and its relation to organisational antecedents and outcomes. The results of study 1 showed the validity of a multidimensional scale that measures flourishing in work and organisational context. The FAWS (Flourishing-at-Work Scale) includes the three dimensions of emotional well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being, as suggested by Rothmann (2013). This supports the work of Keyes (2005, 2007) regarding integrating the models of hedonic (Diener, 1984), eudaimonic (Ryff, 1989), and social well-being (Keyes, 1998) into a unified structure. The results of the latent class analysis also showed that different classes of well-being were evident due to the interplay between the various dimensions. Study 2 showed that work-related antecedents impact on work flourishing. A short form of the FAWS (Flourishing-at-Work Scale) was developed and found to be valid. The results confirm that career advancement, authentic leadership and work-life interference predict work flourishing. Advancement and authentic leadership positively relate to flourishing while negative work-life interference impacts flourishing negatively. The Conservation of Resources (COR) framework (Hobfoll, 1989), which suggests that the well-being of an individual is dependent on the maintenance or gain of resources, is therefore supported. The job demands workload and job insecurity did not predict flourishing in the organisational environment. Study 3 showed that positive organisational practices (positive emotions, support, and inspiration) predict work flourishing. Furthermore, career advancement was a positive predictor of flourishing in the work and organisational context.

The Fast Moving Consumable Goods industry is characterized by competitiveness, on going change and high turnover. To stay competitive, retain talent and keep up with these fast paced systems, organisations have to capitalise on the potential of their workforce to outperform the rest. Giving the increasing demand on both employer and employee regarding innovation, creativity and shared knowledge, increased importance of employee well-being being viewed as sources of “prosperity” for organisations, are critical. Organisations must find a way to enable their employees to flourish. Flourishing refers to high levels of wellbeing in terms of feeling well and functioning well (Keyes, 2007). Subjective well-being refers to the levels of positive and negative affect and the overall satisfaction with life. Psychological well-being consists of individuals’ positive functioning in life. Social wellbeing relates to individuals’ evaluation of their functioning on a public and social level. Individuals spend a large part of their adult life at work in organisational environments that are dynamic and ever-changing. The domain of work is a critical part of existence and plays a dynamic role in the development, expression and maintenance of well-being. Globally the workplace is recognised as a key setting for focusing on improving the well-being of employees due to its compelling impact on a variety of organisational outcomes. Flourishing is thus not only relevant in everyday life, but also occurs in the work and organisational environment. Limited studies regarding flourishing in work and organisational contexts exist and central to studying, understanding, and explaining flourishing at work, are valid and reliable instruments. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a multidimensional scale that measures work flourishing. Furthermore, to investigate the impact of various factors in the work and organisational environment on flourishing in the FMCG industry. A cross-sectional survey design was used to gather data regarding the flourishing of employees in the FMCG industry in South Africa. A stratified random sample (N = 779) was iv taken of employees in an alcoholic beverage company in South Africa. The measuring instruments used were the self-developed Flourishing-at-Work Scale, Flourishing-at-Work Scale Short Form, parts of the Job-Demand-Recourse Scale, Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ), and a Biographical Questionnaire. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis, descriptive statistics, regression analysis and latent class analysis were applied. Structural equation modelling was used to test a structural model of work flourishing and its relation to organisational antecedents and outcomes. The results of study 1 showed the validity of a multidimensional scale that measures flourishing in work and organisational context. The FAWS (Flourishing-at-Work Scale) includes the three dimensions of emotional well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being, as suggested by Rothmann (2013). This supports the work of Keyes (2005, 2007) regarding integrating the models of hedonic (Diener, 1984), eudaimonic (Ryff, 1989), and social well-being (Keyes, 1998) into a unified structure. The results of the latent class analysis also showed that different classes of well-being were evident due to the interplay between the various dimensions. Study 2 showed that work-related antecedents impact on work flourishing. A short form of the FAWS (Flourishing-at-Work Scale) was developed and found to be valid. The results confirm that career advancement, authentic leadership and work-life interference predict work flourishing. Advancement and authentic leadership positively relate to flourishing while negative work-life interference impacts flourishing negatively. The Conservation of Resources (COR) framework (Hobfoll, 1989), which suggests that the well-being of an individual is dependent on the maintenance or gain of resources, is therefore supported. The job demands workload and job insecurity did not predict flourishing in the organisational environment. Study 3 showed that positive organisational practices (positive emotions, support, and inspiration) predict work flourishing. Furthermore, career advancement was a positive predictor of flourishing in the work and organisational context.

自民國八十七年起，我國政府所實施的「公務人員每月二次週休二日制」是「週休二日制」完全施行之前的漸進過渡階段。為符合我國國情之需要，此一政策經由徐圖漸進的政策過程，配合社會生活型態的變遷，以儘可能減少對於人民生活的衝擊。然而在週休二日制政策的研議時期、決策過程、漸進實施階段，及未來可能的政策方向上，仍然具有許多可供商議之處，作為一個影響社會生活型態與國家經濟發展甚鉅的制度變遷過程，其中的一步一履必須謹慎而行。 本研究試圖評估公務人員每月二次週休二日制在實施一年之後對政府機關運作的影響，希望透過此一主題的研究，瞭解該制在開始執行的第一年成效如何。針對不同性質的部門，如配合實施每月二次週休二日制之機關、因業務性質特殊仍依規定維持全年無休之機關、以及與民眾關係密切而採五天半或六天服務之機關，經由多元指標的運用，深入瞭解並評估其所受到制度變遷之衝擊，進而探究其適應新制度成敗之原因，以評估每月二次週休二日制為我國公部門之行政運作所帶來的效益何在。 為同時考量本研究之定位與研究者能力所及之範圍，本研究採行「個案研究法」，以評估政府機關在民國八十七年所實施的每月二次週休二日制對其行政運作之影響。因此本研究就近選擇研究對象，集中於「台北市」選取作為研究對象的若干個案，抽樣的方式是依據不同地區的各類型機關以兼顧地域人口分佈上的差異性。所選擇之個案計有台北市政府人事處、仁愛醫院、信義區衛生所、大安區公所、士林區公所、台北監理所、萬華第二戶政事務所、內湖戶政事務所、北投戶政事務所等九個。 於本研究中，社會大眾在資訊不足及社會成本均攤的認知情境下，對於公部門資源的索取遠大於其所能適當使用的數量，民眾仍處於短視近利的心態，未曾顧慮到行政資源因其苛求而揮霍無度的狀態。在民眾、公務人員及高層決策官僚的三角關係□，民眾看似因恣行民意而身受榮寵，實則虧負正當使用社會資源的義務，同時成為潛在的受害者與加害者。 決策官僚於其中仍不得不肩負部分的責任。儘管受限於政治生態及民意高漲的社會現況中，廢革前任市長所留下的諸多施政措施(諸如各項加強為民服務政策)極有可能遭外界解讀為政黨輪替後的政策傾軋，但是，妥協於民意往往必須以犧牲專業知識及整體社會利益為代價，最後更將因與之妥協而適足以害之。決策者當務之急應是與民眾進行溝通，使民眾進一步瞭解現況之下的利弊得失，進而爭取民意對於政策改革的支持。人民的眼睛能否雪亮以洞察世理，為政者的坦誠以對具有舉足輕重的價值。 公務人員在此三角關係中處於相對弱勢的地位，既無決定政策走向的權力，也無法有效反應其深刻的感觸與體驗，然而，對於政府機關週休二日的實務現況之瞭解卻也無人能出其右。易言之，公務人員眼見行政資源濫用，人力於雙週週六遭受閒置，於單週週六卻有不足，工作量的不平均與工作時間的紊亂徒增公務人員的工作壓力，甚而抹煞了當初週休二日制良善的政策立意。 制度的更迭遞嬗是為了改善社會現狀而起，在此新制度取代舊制度的過程裡，不時地回顅與檢討將幫助我們踏出更為穩重的下一步。每月二次週休二日制的實施在多方勢力競逐之下拍板定案，正如政府機關延長為民服務所需的人力安排一直是在員工紛亂的工作時間表中倉促成軍。新舊制度交替之際，民眾對於政府機關始終存在著無盡的要求與課責，位居前線服務的公務人員則對於不當政策導致行政資源濫用的情形大肆撻伐，身居高位的決策者卻須在瞭解實情的狀況下與民粹政治妥協。從此一執行評估中可以明白見到週休二日制政策的執行過程中仍有許多可以改善之處，有賴決策高層體察實情後積極整合民眾及基層公務人員的真實需要。 目錄 第一章 緒論 1 第一節 工時制度的國際性變遷 2 第二節 我國實施週休二日制的演變背景 6 第三節 研究問題 16 第四節 研究方法與限制 20 第二章 實施週休二日制的相關經驗 27 第一節 週休二日制的實施方式 28 第二節 週休二日制對經濟發展的影響 32 第三節 週休二日制對教育和生活層面的改變 38 第三章 研究分析架構 42 第一節 文獻檢閱 42 第二節 評估的意義與執行評估的應用 48 第三節 分析架構的設計 52 第四章 週休二日與政府內部管理對策 62 第一節 人事安排的異動 65 第二節 員工請假的情形 80 第三節 員工休閒活動的規劃 88 第四節 週休二日制與內部管理對策的綜合分析 95 第五章 週休二日運作結果分析 99 第一節 台北市政府為民服務政策的運作現況 99 第二節 員工工作滿足感 106 第三節 民眾滿意度 116 第四節 機關生產力的改變 124 第五節 週休二日實施結果的綜合分析 128 第六章 結論 132 第一節 研究成果發現 132 第二節 研究成果對週休二日制的意涵 137 第三節 研究建議 151 參考書目 186 圖表目次 圖3-1 研究面向其間相關圖 55 表1-1 六縣市實施週休二日制經歷 9 表1-2 研究個案表 24 表2-1 各國公私部門實施週休二日制先後之比較 28 表2-2 各國法定工時及週休制度之比較 31 表2-3 多放假一天對總體經濟產值的影響 34 表2-4 日本實施週休二日制推動過程 34 表2-5 我國歷年三十人以上企業週休制之變動 35 表2-6 日本歷年三十人以上企業實施週休制之比例 36 表2-7 民間企業規模別週休制之比較 36 表3-1 我國報紙對於週休二日制的不同意見 44 表4-1 研究問題的操作化指標及資料蒐集方式 62 表4-2 員工問卷回收率 63 表4-3 民眾問卷回收率 64 表4-4 受訪者基本資料 65 表4-5 仁愛醫院單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 67 表4-6 信義區衛生所單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 68 表4-7 台北市各區戶政事務所單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 69 表4-8 台北市各區戶政事務所週六各項戶籍案件登記統計表(88.7-12) 69 表4-9 台北市各區戶政事務所週六各項戶籍案件登記統計表(88.1-3) 70 表4-10 台北市各區公所單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 70 表4-11 全體受訪員工對人事安排改變的意見 71 表4-12 人事處員工對於人事安排改變的意見 72 表4-13 仁愛醫院員工對於人事安排改變的意見 73 表4-14 信義區衛生所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 73 表4-15 台北監理所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 74 表4-16 大安區公所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 74 表4-17 士林區公所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 75 表4-18 萬華第二戶政事務所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 75 表4-19 內湖戶政事務所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 76 表4-20 北投戶政事務所員工對於人事安排改變的意見 76 表4-21 受訪員工對於週休二日制的建議 78 表4-22 受訪民眾對於週休二日制的具體建議 78 表4-23 員工請假的改變情形 81 表4-24 台北市政府人事處員工請假的改變情形 83 表4-25 仁愛醫院員工請假的改變情形 83 表4-26 信義區衛生所員工請假的改變情形 84 表4-27 台北監理所員工請假的改變情形 84 表4-28 大安區公所員工請假的改變情形 85 表4-29 士林區公所員工請假的改變情形 85 表4-30 萬華第二戶政事務所員工請假的改變情形 86 表4-31 內湖戶政事務所員工請假的改變情形 86 表4-32 北投戶政事務所員工請假的改變情形 87 表4-33 員工休閒活動的安排情形 88 表4-34 台北市政府人事處員工休閒活動的安排情形 91 表4-35 仁愛醫院員工休閒活動的安排情形 92 表4-36 信義區衛生所員工休閒活動的安排情形 92 表4-37 台北監理所員工休閒活動的安排情形 92 表4-38 大安區公所員工休閒活動的安排情形 93 表4-39 士林區公所員工休閒活動的安排情形 93 表4-40 萬華第二戶政事務所員工休閒活動的安排情形 94 表4-41 內湖戶政事務所員工休閒活動的安排情形 94 表4-42 北投戶政事務所員工休閒活動的安排情形 94 表5-1 台北市大安區公所單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 100 表5-2 台北市士林區公所單雙週週六辦公情形統計表 101 表5-3 工作滿足感的改變情形 107 表5-4 台北市政府人事處工作滿足感的改變情形 110 表5-5 仁愛醫院工作滿足感的改變情形 110 表5-6 信義區衛生所工作滿足感的改變情形 111 表5-7 台北監理所工作滿足感的改變情形 111 表5-8 大安區公所工作滿足感的改變情形 112 表5-9 士林區公所工作滿足感的改變情形 112 表5-10 萬華第二戶政事務所工作滿足感的改變情形 113 表5-11 內湖戶政事務所工作滿足感的改變情形 113 表5-12 北投戶政事務所工作滿足感的改變情形 114 表5-13 受訪員工對於全面實施週休二日制的意見統計 114 表5-14 民眾對週六上班的瞭解程度 117 表5-15 民眾對週休二日後機關服務的評價 117 表5-16 民眾對週休二日後機關服務品質的評價 118 表5-17 民眾對週休二日後人員服務態度的評價 118 表5-18 民眾於週休二日洽公狀況 119 表5-19 民眾對週六服務品質的評價 120 表5-20 民眾對機關洽公便利性的評價 120 表5-21 民眾對洽公時間的評價 121 表5-22 民眾對全面實施週休二日後洽公時間的意見 122 表5-23 民眾對全面實施週休二日的意見 122 表5-24 民眾對何時全面實施週休二日的意見 123 表5-25 機關生產力的改變情形 124 表5-26 台北市政府人事處機關生產力的改變情形 125 表5-27 仁愛醫院機關生產力的改變情形 125 表5-28 信義區衛生所機關生產力的改變情形 125 表5-29 台北監理所機關生產力的改變情形 126 表5-30 大安區公所機關生產力的改變情形 126 表5-31 士林區公所機關生產力的改變情形 126 表5-32 萬華第二戶政事務所機關生產力的改變情形 127 表5-33 內湖戶政事務所機關生產力的改變情形 127 表5-34 北投戶政事務所機關生產力的改變情形 127 表6-1 各國政府機關放假日數之比較 147 附錄目次 附錄一 民眾問卷 159 附錄二 員工問卷 161 附錄三 訪談記要 163