Senescence is the age-related progressive deterioration of physiological processes leading to an increased likelihood of death and is a phenomenon that occurs nearly universally throughout all the world’s organisms. This thesis initially investigated the impact of ageing on the adult Drosophila melanogaster cellular immune response and demonstrated that the cellular immune response in D. melanogaster adults did experience an age-dependent decline in function. There was a striking reduction in haemocyte ability to phagocytose foreign particles with up to 30% less phagocytosis occurring in four week old flies compared to one week olds. Haemocyte number also declined in female flies by up to 32% across these ages. An exploration into the mechanisms that could underlie these observed senescent declines in haemocyte number and function revealed that the age-dependent reduction in the circulating haemocyte population occurred regardless of whether flies were unharmed, wounded or infected. The loss of phagocytosis ability in haemocytes in ageing flies was shown to be a cell autonomous process; there was an equal age-dependent decline (~13%) in haemocyte phagocytic activity in both in vivo and ex vivo assays. However, an attempt to identify phagocytic receptor systems that drove senescence in haemocyte function was unsuccessful. The contribution of the cellular immune response in determining survival following a fungal infection was not conclusively demonstrated, however flies with reduced Dif expression had significantly increased pathogen susceptibility. Although pathogen resistance can decline due to immune senescence, disease defence may also be enhanced as an animal’s life progresses through the formation of immunological memories of prior microbial encounters. This thesis revealed that the cellular immune response in D. melanogaster provides a strong, broadly specific and relatively long-lasting immunological priming response. Haemocytes phagocytosed up to 33% more microbes per cell during a secondary encounter, and up to 50% more if flies had received two homologous primes. This was not general immune upregulation as a heterologous microbial encounter caused a reduction in the phagocytic ability of haemocytes compared to controls. The level of enhancement in the phagocytic ability of haemocytes also declined with the age of the fly, meaning that the ability to develop a primed response senesced. These results are unprecedented in Drosophila and challenge our conventional interpretation of immune senescence because individual immune history has been shown to shape later cellular immune responses. Ageing is a complex and variable process. Some of the differences observed in ageing rates between populations can be due to different selection pressures. Natural selection acts on genetic variation within a population to increase fitness whereas host-parasite interactions predominantly influence genes related to immune parameters. Many genes have pleiotropic effects as well as there being potential trade-offs between investment in longevity, reproduction and immunity. To explore potential genetic variation in immune and life history traits and whether variation in immune parameters negatively influenced other life history traits related to ageing, a panel of outcrossed genotypes of D. melanogaster were assessed. As the flies were derived from individuals originally sourced from a natural population, the results suggest that a striking amount of genetic variation in immune and life history traits is present in wild populations. However no significant correlations between genetic variation in ageing and genetic variation in investment in immunity were identified. Though, perhaps not surprisingly, no key biomarker of ageing in D. melanogaster was identified; this thesis has contributed some significant findings on the effects of ageing on adult D. melanogaster especially relating to their cellular immune response.

The life history and ecology of Neochoroterpes mexicanus was studied from data collected September, 1971, to August, 1972, and January to December, 1973, in the Brazos River, Texas. Nymphal development, instar analysis, voltinism, standing crops, and production estimates were determined from the quantitative samples taken in 1971 and 1972. Aspects of the life history and food habits of 230 specimens were arrived at from qualitative samples and light box captures in 1973. Laboratory investigation in 1973 helped in establishing instar analysis, egg incubation and description, and first instar descriptions. Neochoroterpes mexicanus appeared to have three generations per year with brood overlap in the summer and fall. It displayed 16 and 19 instars for overwintering and combined summer generations respectively.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / Marcelo Ramalho-Ortigao / Kun Yan Zhu / Microbial communities residing within the midgut of insect vectors play a critical role in the response to various zoonotic and human pathogens, and can directly alter the development and survival of the insects. Sand flies are the primary vector of Leishmania, the causative pathogen of leishmaniasis, a neglected tropical disease. Sand flies acquire many microbes from the soil where immature stages develop until emergence as adults. Gram-negative Pantoea agglomerans and gram-positive Bacillus subtilis are two bacteria commonly associated with sand fly populations. Here, I demonstrated that an EGFP- and a GFP-expressing version of these two bacteria localize to different compartments of the midgut; a phenomenon that is achieved, in part, to pH differences found across the length of the gut. Additionally, P. agglomerans is able to selectively induce midgut epithelial apoptosis while B. subtilis does not. This is accompanied by differential immune and homeostasis responses to both bacteria highlighted by immune pathway suppression via the Poor Immune Response upon Knock-in (Pirk) gene. These effects may actually be representative of a broader type of response to bacterial infection that might be present across several insect species. Finally, I demonstrated that during metamorphosis the sand fly relies, at least in part, upon the activation of multiple genes from the autophagy pathway to aid in generating adult tissues. More specifically, I demonstrate, using microscopy, the presence of ATG6 in the cytoplasm of developing midgut epithelial cells of the sand fly pupae.

Wolbachia é uma bactéria intracelular encontrada tanto nos tecidos somáticos quanto nos reprodutivos de diversas espécies de artrópodes e nematódeos. Estudos filogenéticos baseados nos genes 16S e ftsZ indicaram que o gênero Wolbachia congrega seis supergrupos taxonômicos (\"A\" a \"F\"). Infecções por Wolbachia têm sido associadas a diversas alterações na reprodução de seus hospedeiros, p. exemplo, a incompatibilidade citoplasmática (IC), partenogênese, feminização de machos genéticos e morte dos machos. A identificação das diferentes cepas da bactéria é mais precisa quando a análise por locos múltiplos (MLST) é aplicada. Infecção por Wolbachia foi descrita em diversas espécies de moscas-das-frutas da familia Tephritidae, Bactrocera ascita, Rhagoletis cerasi, Ceratitis capitata, nas quais a bactéria induz a incompatibilidade citoplasmática. No gênero Anastrepha, endêmico do Continente Americano, infecção por Wolbachia foi descrita em várias espécies pela análise do gene wsp, existindo também a indicação de que IC mediada por Wolbachia ocorra em duas espécies do grupo fraterculus. A ocorrência de IC aliada à sugestão do emprego da Wolbachia em programas de controle populacional das moscas-das-frutas, impõem a necessidade de uma caracterização mais precisa das diferentes cepas da Wolbachia. No presente trabalho foram amplificados e sequenciados fragmentos dos genes gatB, coxA, hcpA, ftsZ e fbpA, que integram a metodologia de MLST (\"Multiloci Sequence Typing\") e do gene wsp da Wolbachia. Foram analisadas amostras populacionais do complexo de espécies crípticas de Anastrepha fraterculus do Brasil e da Argentina, Peru, Equador, Colômbia, Guatemala e México, além de amostras de Anastrepha obliqua do Brasil. Todas as amostras estavam infectadas com Wolbachia do supergrupo \"A\". Para os cinco genes, foram encontrados haplótipos únicos e outros já descritos anteriormente, determinando, assim, os alelos de cada um presentes nas amostras. O conjunto de cinco alelos de cada amostra determinou a linhagem da bactéria que estava presente. Comparação entre as análises filogenéticas das sequências de cada um dos genes isoladamente, mostrou discordância nas relações entre os alelos e amostras populacionais. As sequências dos cinco genes concatenadas, com 2079 pb, foram analisadas tendo sido encontrados 20 linhagens, com distâncias variando de 0,001 a 0,058. A análise filogenética isolou as linhagens de Wolbachia obtidas das amostras de Anastrepha em clados distintos, demonstrando que diferentes linhagens estão presentes nesses hospedeiros e regiões geográficas. Mostrou, também, que pode ocorrer mais que uma cepa de Wolbachia em uma mesma amostra populacional. Uma das linhagens foi detectada em duas espécies do complexo fraterculus e é, também, a mais comumente encontrada (ST1) em diferentes organismos. As sequências do wsp tinham cerca de 500 pb, tendo sido encontradas 22 sequências distintas. O nível de variabilidade de nucleotídeos não é uniforme ao longo do gene, formando um padrão com quatro regiões hipervariáveis, \"HVRs\". As distâncias genéticas entre os haplótipos de wsp mostrou uma variação de 0,001 a 0,235. Foram observadas evidências de recombinação intragência entre os haplótipos do gene wsp. A análise filogenética também isolou os haplótipos de Wolbachia em clados distintos, porém, em contraste com o MLST, a árvore do gene wsp, não suporta os grupos monofiléticos gerados pelo MLST. Os resultados mostram que linhagens similares de Wolbachia estão disseminadas por vasta extensão do Continente Americano, além da presença de linhagens específicas em determinadas áreas geográficas. Análises de ovários e testículos de indivíduos infectados e não infectados (curados por tratamento térmico) de A. sp. 1 e de A. obliqua foram feitas para avaliar possíveis efeitos da Wolbachia nesses hospedeiros. A análise das preparações dos ovários, coradas pelo DAPI, não mostrou diferenças perceptíveis nesta análise morfológica entre fêmeas infectadas e não infectadas, de ambas as espécies. A produção de espermatozoides aumenta progressivamente durante alguns dias, após a emergência das imagos, e cai nos dias seguintes. A análise da produção de espermatozoides pelos machos infectados e pelos curados mostrou que as diferenças entre eles não foram significativas, em ambas as espécies de hospedeiros. Foram feitas estimativas da fecundidade de fêmeas infectadas e não infectadas, de ambas as espécies. Mostrou-se que fêmeas infectadas são mais fecundas que as não infectadas em A. sp.1, mas mostram fecundidade similar em A. obliqua. As taxas de eclosão de larvas foram também estimadas em cruzamentos intraespecíficos compatíveis (fêmeas infectadas ou não cruzadas com machos não infectados) e cruzamentos incompatíveis (fêmeas não infectadas cruzadas com machos infectados) de ambas as espécies. A fertilidade foi significativamente mais elevada entre os ovos produzidos pelas fêmeas infectadas, de ambas as espécies. Foi observado que machos infectados, em ambas as espécies, estão relacionados com os cruzamentos onde ocorreram as taxas mais altas de eclosão. Analisando os cruzamentos incompatíveis, foi demonstrada a presença de incompatibilidade citoplasmática (IC), como seria esperado pela atuação da Wolbachia. Foi mostrado um alto valor para os índices de IC em A. sp,1 (IC= 54,01%) e em A. obliqua (IC = 66,2%). Os resultados sugerem que podem existir relações mutualísticas insipientes da Wolbachia com suas espécies de Anastrepha hospedeiras / Wolbachia is an intracellular bacteria found in somatic and in the reproductive tissues of various arthropods and nematodes. Phylogenetic studies based on 16S and ftsZ genes indicated the existence of six Wolbachia taxonomic supergroups (\"A\" through \"F\"). Infection of Wolbachia have been linked to several changes in the reproduction of their hosts, like cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI), parthenogenesis, feminization of genetic males and male killing. T Wolbachia infection has been described in several species of fruit flies of the family Tephritidae, like Bactrocera ascita, Rhagoletis cerasi, Ceratitis capitata, in which the bacteria induces cytoplasmic incompatibility. In Anastrepha, endemic to the American Continent, Wolbachia infection has been described in several species by analysis of the wsp gene, and there is also indications that Wolbachia-mediated CI occurs in two species of the fraterculus group. The occurrence of CI coupled with the suggestion of the use of Wolbachia in population supression programs, impose the need for a more precise characterization of the different strains of Wolbachia. The identification of the different strains of the bacteria is most accurate when the methodology of multiple loci (MLST) is applied. In this study fragments of genes gatB, coxA, hcpA, ftsZ and fbpA, integrating the methodology MLST, and of wsp gene were amplified and sequenced. Population samples of the Anastrepha fraterculus.complex of cryptic species from Brasil, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Guatemala and Mexico, and samples of A. oblique from Basil were analysed. All samples were infected with supergroup \"A\" Wolbachia. For each of the five MLST genes, unique as well already known haplotypes were found. Phylogenetic analyses of each gene isolated showed incongruences in the relationships among haplotypes and population samples. The concatenated sequences of the five genes, with 2079 bp, were analyzed and 20 haplotypes were found, with distances ranging from 0.001 to 0.058. Phylogenetic analysis of Wolbachia isolated haplotypes into distinct clades, demonstrating that different strains of Wolbachia were present in these hosts, and in distinct geographic areas. Hosts specific haplotypes were found as well as more than one strain of Wolbachia was found in given population samples. A haplotypes (ST1) was detected in two species of the complex and is also the most commonly found in different organisms. Twenty two different sequences of about 500 bp were found for the wsp gene. The level of nucleotide variability is not uniform along the gene, forming a pattern with four hypervariable regions, HVRs. Genetic distances between haplotypes showed a variation from 0.001 to 0.235. Phylogenetic analysis of the haplotypes also isolated Wolbachia into distinct clades, but in contrast to the MLST, the tree formed by wsp gene does not support the monophily of some groups. The data show that strains of Wolbachia are disseminated along the American Continent, and also that there are specific strains in determined geographic areas. Analyses of ovaries and testes from infected and non infected (cured by heat treatment) individuals of A. sp. 1 and A. obliqua were made in search of possible effects of Wolbachia on its hosts. Ovaries from infected and cured females of both species, stained by DAPI, showed no visible differences in this morphological analysis. The production of sperms increases during few days after ermergence and drops out later one. Analysis of infected and cured males showed that the production of sperms were not significant between them, for both the host species. Fecundity of infected females of A, sp.1 was significantly higher than that of cured females, but was similar in A. obliqua, Egg hatching was scored in compatible intraspecies crosses and also in incompatibles crosses, of both species. Fertility was significntly higher for infected females of both species. Infected males of both species were found associated to crosses in which the higher egg hatching was observed. Analyses of incompatible crosses showed that CI occurred at high rates in A. sp.1 (CI = 54.01%) and in A. obliqua (CI = 66.2%). The data suggest that an incipient mutualism may be present in the relationships of Wolbachia and its Anastrepha hosts

Tsetse flies, Glossina species, are the biological vectors of Trypanosoma species which cause animal African trypanosomiases (AAT) in livestock (especially cattle) in sub-Saharan Africa. This disease is often fatal without treatment and negatively impacts on rural, agricultural and economic development. On the Jos Plateau, north central Nigeria, AAT was historically of little significance due to the presumed absence of tsetse and Fulani pastoralists were encouraged to settle there. But over the last 30 years, the disease has become widespread and highly prevalent in the area. This has been attributed to the expansion of tsetse on the plateau, frequent migrations of cattle to areas with higher tsetse densities and the presence of other biting flies which serve as mechanical vectors. In the current study, the presence and abundance of tsetse was determined in selected villages using biconical tsetse trap surveys. The low number of flies trapped suggests that tsetse expansion has been very limited within the plateau but the fact that trypanosome DNA was present in over half of these flies implicates them in AAT transmission. The migration of a herd of cattle was also tracked and during the period, blood samples were collected from the cattle and examined for trypanosomes using molecular techniques. Despite prophylactic treatment and deltamethrin sprays, results showed that a significant proportion of the animals (52%) had become infected with T. vivax over the migration period. Tsetse flies (G. palpalis) were also slightly more abundant in some of parts of the migration area. Potential mechanical vectors (Stomoxys spp. and Tabanidae) were trapped and results obtained from the examination of their mouthparts for trypanosomes indicate their involvement in transmission. However, it is difficult to make any definite conclusions about their overall contribution which is thought to be minimal and more studies are needed to clarify their significance. It is concluded that trypanosomiasis risk from tsetse on the Jos Plateau is currently low and seasonal migration appears to be the main driver of AAT transmission by exposing cattle to more tsetse for longer periods. Other biting flies may play a limited role which remains undetermined. Continued monitoring of cattle and tsetse across the plateau over the next few years is important and the careful use of trypanocides and insecticide treated cattle is recommended as an appropriate control strategy.

Rates and energies of consumption (C), egestion (F), assimilation (A), respiration (R), growth (Pg), production of exuviae (Pev), and production of egg masses (Pr) and associated efficiencies, and the effects of seasonal temperature, weight and metamorphic stage upon these factors were examined for a typical individual and cohort of Corydalus cornutus (L.) from a stream in North-Central Texas (330 23'N, 97*5'W). Dobson flies are apparently univoltine in the study area, with 11 larval instars. Emergence, oviposition and hatching occur from late May to August. The typical dobson fly hatches in mid-June, grows rapidly until November, and resumes rapid growth in March, reaching full adult size prior to leaving the stream to pupate in early June. Adult females must feed to provide energy to yolk eggs, produce egg-mass coverings and continue somatic maintenance during their week of reproductive endeavors. Metabolic compensation enables larval dobson flies to maintain preferred and fairly constant rates of R during winter (201-451 pl g-1 h~1; 5-15 C) and summer (985-1173 pl g- h1; 20-30 C); with a seasonal acclimatization change point between 15-20 C. Reduction of rates of R through undercompensation during the winter when food is scarce and through partial compensation at high temperatures during the summer conserves energy which is allocated to P, resulting in high ratios of P/R (1.94) and P/A (66%) for the individual larva and, to a lesser degree, for the cohort (P/R = 1.07, P/A = 52.3%, P/B = 9.96). Rates of C, F, A and R, but not assimilation efficiency, were influenced by temperature and size. The energy budget for a typical dobson fly during the 47 wk as a larva was: C = 4167, A = 3442, F = 725, Pg = 2075, Pev = 198, and R = 1169. Ova respired 0.107 cal wk-1, prepupae 357 cal wk~ 1 , male pupae 509 cal wk~ 1 , female pupae 454 cal wk~1 , male adults 625 cal wk-l1 and female adults 735 cal wk-1 . The prepupa and pupa shed exuviae of 144 cal and 120 cal respectively. The average female produced 667 cal of eggs and 185 cal of egg-case material, which totaled 54% of adult female A. The annual energetics of the cohort of larvae was: C = 39,150, A = 32,642, F = 6876, Pg = 13,052, Pev = 3608, Pr= 359-409 and R = 15,982 cal m- 2

Typescript (photocopy). / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries

As moscas-das-frutas são pragas de importância quarentenária, entre as quais se destacam as espécies do gênero Anastrepha. Apesar de muito estudada, a taxonomia de alguns grupos do gênero ainda não está adequadamente resolvida. A correta identificação do grupo fraterculus exige prática/conhecimento e a utilização de uma série de técnicas. Assim, o presente estudo propõe testar a eficiência de duas técnicas na identificação de três espécies (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. sororcula) e na identificação de espécimes de A. fraterculus em relação a três hospedeiros (goiaba, nêspera e pêssego). Foram testadas as técnicas de análises de imagens, pela primeira vez em moscas-das-frutas, e de morfometria (multivariada para os acúleos e geométrica para as asas). Pela análise de imagens, obtiveram-se acurácias bastante altas na identificação das espécies, tanto por meio das imagens de asas quanto dos acúleos, com médias de acerto de 87,8% e 90,6%, respectivamente. Em relação à associação de A. fraterculus com os hospedeiros, também foram obtidos resultados positivos com a análise de imagens (médias de 85,3% de acerto nas imagens de asas e de 88,3% nas imagens de acúleos). A morfometria geométrica das asas, utilizando 17 marcos, indicou diferenças na forma das asas dos indivíduos de cada espécie, separando-os com sucesso em grupos distintos. Em relação à associação de A. fraterculus com seus hospedeiros, os grupos formados não foram muito distintos, principalmente em relação aos indivíduos provenientes de pêssego. A análise de morfometria multivariada de sete medidas dos ápices dos acúleos, por meio da análise discriminante linear (ADL), também indicou diferenças entre as espécies, separando-as em três grupos. Por meio da análise de cluster (UPGMA), verificou-se que A. fraterculus e A. obliqua formam um grupo e A. sororcula fica isolada, indicando que as medidas que mais influenciaram o agrupamento das espécies, foram o comprimento da serra (L3 e L7). Na associação com hospedeiros, foram obtidos resultados positivos com a ADL, entretanto, não foi possível separar as populações de um mesmo hospedeiro por meio da UPGMA. As duas técnicas foram eficientes na separação das espécies e na associação de A. fraterculus com seus hospedeiros, mostrando que o fruto hospedeiro pode influenciar na coloração e forma da asa e no formato do acúleo nas três espécies do grupo fraterculus. / The fruit flies are pests of quarantine importance, among which stand out the genus Anastrepha. Despite of many study, the taxonomy of some groups of the genus is still not adequately resolved. The correct identification of fraterculus group requires practice/knowledge and the use of a number of techniques. Thus, this study proposes to test the efficiency of two techniques in the identification of three species (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. sororcula) and in the identification of A. fraterculus specimens related to three hosts (guava, loquat and peach). Were tested the techniques of image analysis, for the fists time in fruit flies, and of morphometry (conventional for the aculeus and geometric for the wings). By image analysis, very high accuracies were obtained for species identification, both by the images of the wings and aculeus, with average accuracy of 87,8% and 90,6%, respectively. Regarding the association of A. fraterculus with the hosts, also were obtained positive results with image analysis (means of 85,3% of accuracy on images of wings and 88,3% on images of aculeus). The geometric morphometric of wings, using 17 landmarks, indicated differences in the wings shape of the individuals of each species, separating them into distinct groups successfully. Regarding the association of A. fraterculus with the hosts, the groups obtained were not very distinct, specially in relation to individuals from peach. The multivariate morphometric of seven measures of the aculeus tip, by linear discriminant analysis (LDA), also indicated differences in the species, separating them in three groups. By cluster analysis (UPGMA), was noted that A, fraterculus and A. obliqua form a group and A. soroscula is isolated, suggesting that the measures that most influenced the grouping of the species were the length of the serrate part (L3 and L7). In the host association, were obtained positives results with LDA, however, was not possible separate the populations of the same host by UPGMA. Both techniques were effectives in separating the species and in the association of A. fraterculus with their hosts, showing that the host fruit can influence in the color and shape of the wing and in the shape of the aculeus in the three species of the group fraterculus.

As moscas-das-frutas são pragas de importância quarentenária, entre as quais se destacam as espécies do gênero Anastrepha. Apesar de muito estudada, a taxonomia de alguns grupos do gênero ainda não está adequadamente resolvida. A correta identificação do grupo fraterculus exige prática/conhecimento e a utilização de uma série de técnicas. Assim, o presente estudo propõe testar a eficiência de duas técnicas na identificação de três espécies (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. sororcula) e na identificação de espécimes de A. fraterculus em relação a três hospedeiros (goiaba, nêspera e pêssego). Foram testadas as técnicas de análises de imagens, pela primeira vez em moscas-das-frutas, e de morfometria (multivariada para os acúleos e geométrica para as asas). Pela análise de imagens, obtiveram-se acurácias bastante altas na identificação das espécies, tanto por meio das imagens de asas quanto dos acúleos, com médias de acerto de 87,8% e 90,6%, respectivamente. Em relação à associação de A. fraterculus com os hospedeiros, também foram obtidos resultados positivos com a análise de imagens (médias de 85,3% de acerto nas imagens de asas e de 88,3% nas imagens de acúleos). A morfometria geométrica das asas, utilizando 17 marcos, indicou diferenças na forma das asas dos indivíduos de cada espécie, separando-os com sucesso em grupos distintos. Em relação à associação de A. fraterculus com seus hospedeiros, os grupos formados não foram muito distintos, principalmente em relação aos indivíduos provenientes de pêssego. A análise de morfometria multivariada de sete medidas dos ápices dos acúleos, por meio da análise discriminante linear (ADL), também indicou diferenças entre as espécies, separando-as em três grupos. Por meio da análise de cluster (UPGMA), verificou-se que A. fraterculus e A. obliqua formam um grupo e A. sororcula fica isolada, indicando que as medidas que mais influenciaram o agrupamento das espécies, foram o comprimento da serra (L3 e L7). Na associação com hospedeiros, foram obtidos resultados positivos com a ADL, entretanto, não foi possível separar as populações de um mesmo hospedeiro por meio da UPGMA. As duas técnicas foram eficientes na separação das espécies e na associação de A. fraterculus com seus hospedeiros, mostrando que o fruto hospedeiro pode influenciar na coloração e forma da asa e no formato do acúleo nas três espécies do grupo fraterculus. / The fruit flies are pests of quarantine importance, among which stand out the genus Anastrepha. Despite of many study, the taxonomy of some groups of the genus is still not adequately resolved. The correct identification of fraterculus group requires practice/knowledge and the use of a number of techniques. Thus, this study proposes to test the efficiency of two techniques in the identification of three species (A. fraterculus, A. obliqua e A. sororcula) and in the identification of A. fraterculus specimens related to three hosts (guava, loquat and peach). Were tested the techniques of image analysis, for the fists time in fruit flies, and of morphometry (conventional for the aculeus and geometric for the wings). By image analysis, very high accuracies were obtained for species identification, both by the images of the wings and aculeus, with average accuracy of 87,8% and 90,6%, respectively. Regarding the association of A. fraterculus with the hosts, also were obtained positive results with image analysis (means of 85,3% of accuracy on images of wings and 88,3% on images of aculeus). The geometric morphometric of wings, using 17 landmarks, indicated differences in the wings shape of the individuals of each species, separating them into distinct groups successfully. Regarding the association of A. fraterculus with the hosts, the groups obtained were not very distinct, specially in relation to individuals from peach. The multivariate morphometric of seven measures of the aculeus tip, by linear discriminant analysis (LDA), also indicated differences in the species, separating them in three groups. By cluster analysis (UPGMA), was noted that A, fraterculus and A. obliqua form a group and A. soroscula is isolated, suggesting that the measures that most influenced the grouping of the species were the length of the serrate part (L3 and L7). In the host association, were obtained positives results with LDA, however, was not possible separate the populations of the same host by UPGMA. Both techniques were effectives in separating the species and in the association of A. fraterculus with their hosts, showing that the host fruit can influence in the color and shape of the wing and in the shape of the aculeus in the three species of the group fraterculus.

<p>The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast the two novels by focusing</p><p>on leadership and group dynamics. First, I explain some general terms like</p><p>primary and secondary groups, leader and leadership, and five different</p><p>leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire, task-motivated and</p><p>relationship-motivated leader), and then I apply the terms to the novels. In the</p><p>analysis I examine how some followers and group constellations react to different</p><p>kinds of leadership, and how the three leaders choose to approach their roles and</p><p>why they become successful or not.</p><p>The effect the democratic leadership has on both leaders and followers differs</p><p>between the novels. Homer in Tomorrow, When the War Began trusts his leadership</p><p>skills and gets appreciation from the primary group of friends he leads, while</p><p>Ralph in Lord of the Flies is disobeyed and challenged by his secondary group.</p><p>The group of teenagers grows stronger together, while the island boys disband as a</p><p>result of the power struggle between Ralph and Jack. The latter trusts his charisma</p><p>and threatens and punishes the boys in order to keep them under control. Jack</p><p>seems successful as an autocratic leader, since his followers carry out his orders</p><p>and let him be the unquestioned leader, but he is in the final analysis unsuccessful</p><p>since he fails to put the needs of his followers before his own strong desire for</p><p>power. Both Homer and Jack are strong leaders of their own primary group, and</p><p>one argument why they are more successful than Ralph is the loyalty they receive</p><p>from their followers. However, the reason for their faithfulness differs. In</p><p>Homer’s case it is friendship, and in Jack’s case it is fear of what he will do to</p><p>them if they defy him.</p>