In the United States aquaculture is a billion dollar industry. Aquaculture is essentially the production of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions. Although conditions are controlled to a certain degree, absolute control is not possible. This reason alone is a huge problem that can cost the industry millions of dollars a year. In catfish, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol are two compounds are primarily responsible for imparting a musty/earthy off-flavor. Off- flavors are secondary metabolites of some blue-green algae and actinomycete bacteria. When present in fish tissue they create an undesirable taste. Different approaches have been used in order to alleviate the problem of catfish off- flavor, however as of yet no permanent solution has been found. Ozone, a very powerful oxidizer, is currently being used in a wide range of industries from wastewater to food. Previous research has shown that ozone is effective in eliminating off-flavors in water, while current research is exploring how it can further be applied. The purpose of this research is to determine the effects of ozone on off-flavors in catfish. Twenty grams was cut from fresh catfish fillets and spiked with 0 or 10 ppb of the off-flavor 2-Methylisoborneol. After being stored at 4°C for at least 12 hours the catfish was exposed to oxygen or ozone treatment for 0, 30 or 60 minutes. The concentrations were determined with SPME GC-MS analysis. Quality tests such as moisture, fat and color were also determined. The study indicates that oxygen and ozone treatments did differ, indicating that ozone treatment was successful in reducing catfish off-flavor. Moisture was unaffected, however color was significantly changed, while it was unclear if ozone was the cause of changes in fat.

As consumers have pursued healthier lifestyles in recent years, consumption of soy foods has risen steadily, encouraged by scientific studies showing health benefits from these products. There is a large market for ice cream in the United States. However, since ice cream contains dairy ingredients, a number of Americans are not able to consume it because of dietary habits due to religious beliefs, lactose intolerance, vegetarianism or other related ideologies. For years, these groups of consumers have been able to substitute ice cream with frozen desserts containing soy protein as a substitute for milk protein, but never in the United States have companies used a mixture of the soy protein with coconut milk in ice cream or frozen dessert formulations. A non-dairy frozen dessert containing coconut milk and soy protein (meeting FDA requirements for health claim) was developed, and two consumer studies were performed to determine sensory attributes critical to consumer acceptance and purchase intent. In the first study (n = 109) three formulations were developed: vanilla (A), peach (B) and strawberry cheesecake (C). Drivers for acceptance and purchase intent were overall liking/flavor/texture, and overall liking/flavor/sweetness, respectively. Appearance and color were important for purchase intent for product C, not for A and B. Flavor choices affected purchase intent; flavor was most critical to purchase intent for product B, not for A. Products A, B, and C had an original purchase intent of 34%, 44%, and 83%, respectively; these figures (except for product B) significantly (prob.<0.05) increased after information about health benefit of soy protein/non-dairy ingredients had been given to consumers. In study two, nine different formulations of the strawberry cheesecake-flavor desserts were developed. Consumers (n = 432) evaluated two of the nine formulations for acceptability of consumer sensory attributes. There were significant differences found among the nine formulations and overall liking, flavor and texture were the attributes responsible for the differences. Overall liking and flavor were the two most important factors in determining both consumer acceptance and purchase intent.

A unique biocide composition (patent pending) that is formed from a hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite mixture was investigated. A biocidal "complex" is formed by adding the peroxide to the hypochlorite in an amount so that the weight ratio of the peroxide to the hypochlorite is no less than 1:10. The chemical structure of this biocidal "complex" is uncertain but we postulate that it is a semi-stable complex, whose stability is disrupted by heat, acid, U/V exposure and the presence of organic matter (i.e., microbes) The antimicrobial activity of the biocidal "complex" is most likely a combination effect between oxidation and reductive mechanisms The biocidal complex needed from one sixth to one half the concentration of hydrogen peroxide and from one twentieth to one half that of sodium hypochlorite to kill a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells. In the case of bacterial spores (Bacillus sp.), MICs of the biocidal complex ranged from one twentieth to one half and from one fourth to one half for hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite, respectively. FIC values for both bacterial cells and spores were less than one. FIC values of less than one indicate that a synergistic effect exists between biocide components. The activity of the biocide is stable at alkaline pH, with a half-life of at least 42 days. It is non-corrosive and can be effective in both a dip and spray mode against bacterial cells in their planktonic or sessile state. Our studies indicate that sodium hypochlorite is not only synergistic with hydrogen peroxide but with sodium peroxide as well The use of this biocidal complex may provide a safe, effective and easy method for killing potential pathogens as well as for disinfecting and removing biofilms, as they pose a threat to human safety, particularly in the Food Industry.

Anti-angiogenic therapies aimed at halting new blood vessel formation are now being extensively studied as inhibitors of excessive angiogenesis. Conversely, compounds with ability to stimulate angiogenesis are being considered as a therapeutic approach for insufficient angiogenesis. Food-borne bioactive compounds such as genistein, resveratrol, curcumin, the Bowman-Birk inhibitor, and catechins are being potentially established as good candidates for angioprevention. The aim of our study was to determine the anti-or pro-angiogenic activity of milk-based glycosphingolipids such as C6-ceramide (Cer), Sphingomyelin (SPM) and Glucosylceramide (GluCer), in vitro, using breast cancer (MCF-7), colon cancer (Caco-2) and prostate cancer (DU-145) cell-lines, on angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), cathepsin-D and hypoxia inducing factor-1alpha (HIF-1α) expression and cell migration under normoxia and hypoxia. Another aim was to conduct an in vivo study using chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and zebrafish model system to substantiate the in vitro results. Breast cancer cells (MCF-7) treated with SPM had reduced cell migration under hypoxic conditions. Cathepsin-D expression under SPM treated MCF-7 cells was significantly lower under both conditions. GlcCer had significant apoptotic activity under hypoxic MCF-7 cells. Colon cancer cells (Caco-2) treated with Cer had reduced cell growth at > 50 μM under normoxic as well as hypoxic conditions. Cathepsin-D, cell migration and HIF-1α expression were significantly reduced under hypoxic condition. SPM had low cathepsin-D levels and cell migrations in normoxic and hypoxic conditions as well as low HIF-1α at hypoxic condition. In GlcCer treated cells, the levels of cathepsin-D and cell migration were reduced under normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Prostate cancer cells (DU-145) exposed to SPM had reduced cell viability. All the compounds had lower levels of VEGF expression at normoxic conditions at 50 μM exposure; only GlcCer had lower VEGF expression under hypoxic condition. The cell migration was reduced under normoxic condition and also for cells exposed to Cer under hypoxic condition. In vivo results showed ceramide was anti-angiogenic as confirmed by both CAM assay as well as zebrafish model. SPM proved to facilitate sprouting, however, the blood vessels looked dilated. GlcCer disrupted the neovascularization in CAM model and restricted the ISV formation in zebrafish.

Adequate provision of soy isoflavone and protein in soybean products is essential in meeting the soy health claim and the promotion of a healthy product. Commercial soymilks contain inadequate amounts of protein and isoflavone to meet the FDA recommended 25g and 40-50mg/day level, respectively, in 1-2 servings. This research study set out to investigate the possibility of producing a protein-isoflavone enriched (PIE) soymilk by incorporating soy germ in soymilk to provide the recommended FDA level in 1-2 servings. Three PIE soymilks containing 25 (SG25), 30 (SG30), and 35% (SG35) germ were prepared and compared to 100% whole soybean milk (WSB-control) and a commercial soymilk. Product development comprised process and formulation optimization, accompanied by physicochemical analysis, shelf life and beverage quality evaluation, as well as consumer sensory evaluation. The optimal processing method for incorporating soy germ into soymilk was at the starting stage (soaking) in soymilk production, and the WSB/SG25 was the optimal soymilk. The 25% soy germ beverage had the best composition profile closely followed by the WSB/SG30, WSB and WSB/SG35. The composition profile of the PIE beverages was better than the commercial soy milk. Shelf life and physicochemical quality of the PIE soymilk demonstrated stable shelf life, high beverage quality characterized by good colloidal stability, high degree of dispersion and less protein separation as germ amount increases. Validation of the optimal formulation from consumer perspective identified the WSB/SG25 soymilk as the most liked product by both male and female consumers. This was clearly revealed in the acceptance and purchase intent of the beverages. Spiking of the optimal formulation (WSB/SG25) with green mango, orange, almond and chocolate flavors, also revealed that green mango and almond flavor were preferred based on the overall liking, acceptance and purchase intent responses. Aroma, sweetness, overall flavor, color and mouth feel viscosity were crucial attributes that determined overall liking and in turn influenced the underlying differences among the beverages. These results suggest that incorporation of soy germ into soymilk yielded sufficient isoflavone and protein to meet the FDA requirement in 1 serving for isoflavone and 3 servings for protein.

In this study crude soy oil was extracted from the soy flour by hexane solvent. The crude oil was refined using a refining procedure similar to the one in edible oil industries, which included degumming, neutralizing, and bleaching. As the result, the eight groups of the oils and the gums were obtained. The compositions of fatty acids and tocopherols in the eight groups of samples were analyzed using GC-FID and HPLC, respectively. The antioxidant activities of the samples were analyzed by two chemical models, cholesterol and DHA. The results showed that ã- and ä-tocopherols may not be the main antioxidants of the crude oil when studied by the two models. The analyses for the antioxidant activities indicated that gum-1 had the highest antioxidant activity among the samples. The gum-1 was fractionalized by a silica gel column and three fractions were obtained. The antioxidant activities of the fractions were analyzed by the cholesterol model. The result indicated that the ethyl acetate/hexane fraction had the highest activity among the fractions. The fraction was further analyzed and fractionalized by RE-HPLC using a two-step elution scheme. As a result, a RE-HPLC fraction containing two individual peaks was demonstrated higher antioxidant activity. A HPLC peak was identified as a phytosterol (plant cholesterol) by searching a GC-MS database.

Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus are natural inhabitants of estuarine environments of the Gulf of Mexico. V. vulnificus is the leading cause of death, while V. parahaemolyticus is a leading cause of foodborne gastroenteritis from the consumption of seafood in the United States. Refrigeration is commonly used as a preservation method to control the growth of microorganisms in food. The ability of some microorganisms to adapt, as a survival response when exposed to a downshift in temperature, could compromised efforts to use low temperature storage to reduce the risk of foodborne illnesses. Limited research is available on the growth characteristics of different strains of V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus, or on the adaptation response to cold shock on their survival. This study was conducted to determine if strain-to-strain differences exist in the growth and survival of V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus at refrigeration temperatures, and to determine if these strains exhibit a cold temperature adaptation response. Results obtained from this study show that various V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus strains grown in tryptic soy broth have significant differences in growth and survival when stored at 5, 8 or 10°C over 10 days. V. vulnificus strains were able to survive but not grow when shifted from 37°C to storage at 5 or 8°C, while most of these strains were able to grow at 10°C. V. parahaemolyticus strains survived but did not grow when shifted from 37°C to 5°C. During storage at 8 or 10°C however, V. parahaemolyticus strains were able to grow. When these strains were adapted at an intermediate temperature of 15°C for 4 hours, this resulted in an enhanced survival of V. vulnificus strains. This adaptation response however varied between strains. Not all of the V. parahaemolyticus strains had an enhanced survival when exposed to an intermediate temperature of 15°C. The cold adaptation response was more sustained for the V. vulnificus strains at some temperatures tested, while for the V. parahaemolyticus strains that had an adaptation response, this response was generally short lived.

Ozone is an effective sanitizing agent against a broad spectrum of pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Optimization of treatment applications of ozonated water is needed for increased use in the food industry. An experimental apparatus and process has been developed to digitally measure ozone concentrations in processing water at the point of product application. Two application methods were evaluated. Ozone concentrations were measured rapidly at the point of product application. Shrimp samples were either sprayed or soaked for 20, 40 or 60 seconds with similar volumes of water with dissolved ozone levels of 1, 2, or 3 ppm. Microbial destruction using aerobic plate counts (APC), and lipid oxidation using the TBARS test, was measured to determine an optimal treatment. Lowering the water temperature to 10°C facilitated the production of elevated levels of dissolved ozone (dO₃), whereas high chlorine levels reduced dO₃. The soaking treatment resulted in greater bacterial reduction than the spray treatment of peeled shrimp, and application time had little effect at low concentrations of dO₃. Well handled shrimp samples were then treated within 24 h of harvest using the optimal treatment of soaking in 3 ppm for 60 s. Peeled shrimp were sampled at two day intervals to evaluate APC and rancidity and at 3 day intervals for bioamines (putrescine and cadaverine) using gas chromatography (GC). Sensory quality changes were evaluated using consumer sensory testing. A Listeria monocytogenes inoculation study was also conducted. Treated shrimp took 16 days to reach bacterial loads of 10⁷ CFU/g as compared to untreated shrimp which showed these levels at day 12. Day 12 and day 15 untreated shrimp were rejected by a majority of the consumer panel and treated shrimp were not, based on their odors of decomposition. These rejected untreated shrimp showed >2.6 ppm putrescine and >1.5 ppm cadaverine. Untreated shrimp reached spoilage levels of 10⁷ CFU/g 4 days before treated samples during iced storage (12 vs. 16 days). Shrimp inoculated with L. monocytogenes serotype (1/2a) and L. monocytogenes serotype (4b) resulted in a >10⁴ CFU/g reduction after treatment. As expected oxidative rancidity did not increase in any of these studies.

Currently, depolymerization and decolorization of chitosan are achieved by chemical or enzymatic methods which are time consuming and expensive. Ozone has been shown to be able to degrade macromolecules and remove pigments due to its high oxidation potential. In this study, the effects of ozone treatment on depolymerization and decolorization of chitosan were investigated. Crawfish chitosan was ozonated in water and acetic acid solution for 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes at room temperature with 12wt% gas. For the determination of viscosityaverage Molecular weight of chitosan, an ubbelohde viscometer was used to measure the intrinsic viscosity, and the Mark-Houwink equation was used to calculate molecular weight. Color of ozone-treated chitosan was analyzed using a Minolta spectrophotometer. The degree of deacetylation was determined by a colloid titration method. Molecular weight of ozone-treated chitosan in acetic acid solution decreased appreciably as the ozone treatment time increased. Ozonation for 20 minutes reduced the molecular weight of the chitosan by 92% (104 KDa) compared to the untreated chitosan (1333 KDa) with a decrease in viscosity of the chitosan solution. Ozonation for 5 min markedly increased the whiteness of chitosan; however, further ozonation resulted in development of yellowness. In case of the ozonation in water, there were no significant differences of the molecular weight and color between ozone-treated chitosans. However, results showed that ozone treatment of chitosan in both water and acetic acid solution was not effective in removing acetyl groups (deacetylation) in chitosan molecules. This study showed that ozone can be used to modify molecular weight and remove pigments of chitosan without chemical use in a shorter time with less cost.

Inherent antibacterial/antifungal properties and film-forming ability of chitosan make it ideal for use as a biodegradable antimicrobial packaging material. This study was attempted to develop antimicrobial films from crawfish chitosan. Traditional chitosan production involves: deproteinization (DP), demineralization (DM), decolorization (DC), and deacetylation (DA). Modification of chitosan production affects film properties. Effects of chitosan production protocols, film-casting solvents, and plasticizer contents on physicochemical, mechanical and antibacterial properties were investigated. Four chitosans were prepared from traditional (DPMCA) and modified processes [excluding either DP, DC or both DP and DC]. Chitosan (1%w/v) was dissolved in 1% acetic, ascorbic, citric, formic, lactic and/or malic acid, and cast with and without glycerol (a plasticizer) at a ratio of 1:0.1, 1:0.2, 1:0.3, 1:0.4 and 1:0.5 (chitosan:glycerol, w/w) to form films. Flexible and transparent films could be prepared from chitosans with acetic, formic or citric acid without a plasticizer. DMCA acetate films showed higher tensile strength (135.8 MPa), but poor antibacterial properties. DPMCA formate films with tensile strength of 76.8 MPa reduced microbial loads of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella sonnei by more than 2.5 log CFU/mL in 24 hours. DMA citrate films showed tensile strength of 29.3 MPa and reduced Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella sonnei by more than 4.4 log CFU/mL in 24 hours. This study demonstrated the feasibility of developing antimicrobial edible films from crawfish chitosans. Some critical factors required for desirable film properties were identified.