Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University--San Marcos, 2009. / Vita. Appendix: leaves 73-80. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 81-90). Also available on microfilm.

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007. / Vita. Appendices: leaves 71-84. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 85- 88).

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on September 14, 207) Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University-San Marcos, 2007. / Vita. Appendices: leaves 71-84. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 85- 88).

Thesis (M.A.)--Texas State University--San Marcos, 2009. / Vita. Appendix: leaves [32]-47. Reproduction permission applies to print copy: Blanket permission granted per author to reproduce. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [48]-51). Also available on microfilm.

This project examined the differences in skeletal preservation from several mound sites in the West Central Illinois Valley, spanning the Late Archaic to Late Woodland periods, from approximately 2500 B.C to A.D. 1000: Koster Mounds, containing Early Archaic to Middle Archaic burials from approximately 8700 B.C. to 800 B.C.; Peisker Mounds, containing Early Woodland burials from approximately 625 B.C. to 230 B.C.; Gibson Mounds, containing Archaic, Hopewell, and Late Woodland burials starting 50 B.C. to A.D. 400; and Helton Mounds, containing Late Woodland burials from approximately A.D. 830 to A.D. 1200. The intrinsic factors of bone density and age and sex of the individual were compared statistically with bone inventories and osseous taphonomic conditions to determine if these factors affected preservation. Based on extant inventories each skeleton was scored on the percent of standard measurements possible to take, 24 cranial, 10 mandibular, and 44 postcranial measurements, following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), as a proxy for individual element completeness for major portions of the skeleton. Additionally, this project examined more specifically the preservation of the os coxa. The five commonly used areas for sexing (the ventral arc, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus ridge, greater sciatic notch, and preauricular sulcus), following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Phenice (1969), were examined and scored independently. Three commonly used areas for aging (the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, and acetabulum) following Brooks and Suchey (1990), Phenice (1969) and Calce (2012) were examined and scored independently. Soil samples were collected from two sites and analyzed to determine if soil pH affects the preservation rates of skeletons differently. To assess the amount of data lost in older skeletal assemblages the author tested the hypotheses that (1) denser skeletal portions are most likely to be well-preserved, (2) mature adult males are more likely to be well-preserved than mature adult females, (3) mature adults will be more well-preserved than the remains of juveniles and old adults, and (4) skeletons from more recent time periods will be more well-preserved than skeletons from earlier time periods. The results of the study show, that while there are many factors that influence preservation of skeletal assemblages in the archaeological record, certain factors are more important than others when it comes to skewing the archaeological record. Sex of the individual does not appear significantly to affect the rate of preservation, while age at death and duration of burial, especially when looking at infants compared to adults and individuals buried during the Archaic period compared to individuals buried during the Middle and Late Woodland period, do affect preservation.

A primary goal of the forensic anthropologist is assisting in the estimation of a post-mortem interval. This assessment is largely based upon the degree and quality of soft tissue decomposition, influenced by factors including temperature, humidity, insect activity, carnivore and rodent activity, perimortem trauma and the depositional environment. While the effects of temperature on decomposition have been long appreciated and initially studied, little or no research has been conducted on the disruption of insect activity and how that disturbance may affect the decomposition process. This study was designed to determine if the exposure of skin surface of porcine remains to insect repellant (specifically, DEET) has an effect on the presence and overall activity of insects during decomposition. Two experiments were conducted in the spring and fall with results indicating that insect repellant slows the rate of decomposition. Such findings are important for criminal investigators requiring an accurate estimation of post-mortem time to appreciate those factors that may adversely affect the process and rate of soft tissue deterioration.

The present research examined the features that may differentiate cuts made in bone by mechanical and hand-powered saws, specifically investigating the characteristics of commercially available reciprocating saws. The partial limbs of adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were used as a proxy for human remains, and were cut using five commercially available reciprocating saw blades and a hand-powered hacksaw. The reciprocating blades tested ranged from five teeth-per-inch to 14/18 teeth-per-inch and included raker, alternating, and wavy tooth sets. The hacksaw blade had 32 teeth-per-inch, with wavy set teeth. All the blades examined were intended to cut wood, metal, or both materials. The resulting false start kerfs and complete kerfs on the remains were then examined macroscopically and microscopically. The present study utilized both qualitative and quantitative analysis to examine kerf features that characterize reciprocating saws. The presentation of specific features within the kerf varied based upon blade properties, how the implement was powered, and how it was wielded in reference to the material. The results of the present study demonstrated that significant differences do exist between reciprocating saw blades. Kerf characteristics in which significant differences were noted include: kerf false start (cross section) shape, frequency of cut surface drift, presence of harmonics, striation regularity, and exit chipping size. Inter-blade differences generally reflect class characteristics previously established for hand-powered blades, though reciprocating blades do not strictly follow these categorizations (Symes 1992; Symes et al. 1998, 2010). Identification of inter-blade differences allows the limited identification of sub-classes within reciprocating saws based on the above characteristics, though blades cannot be uniquely identified. Additionally, interior exit chipping was noted, which has not been mentioned in previous sharp force trauma research. Ultimately, this research has applications for sharp force trauma analysis and further aids in the identification of reciprocating saw use in a forensic context, including dismemberments.

Determining the depositional environment and the postmortem alterations to a set of remains are aspects of forensic investigations that are necessary to explain the circumstances surrounding the death of the individual. Further research on the taphonomic agents that can impact skeletal material can aid in the differentiation between various postmortem alterations that impact a single set of remains. The present study focuses on organic staining as a method for reconstructing the deposited environment of the remains and the taphonomic agents in which they came into contact. Organic staining results largely from tannins leaching from plant materials, including wood and leaves, and therefore can be seen on bone deposited in wooden coffin environments or on terrestrial surfaces. The present study hypothesized that the degree of staining observed on skeletal elements would increase as the length of exposure to the organic matter increased and that different plant materials, and environments, would leave different patterns or colorations of staining. The skeletal elements consisted of 150 commercially available pig (Sus scrofa) femora that had the epiphyses removed and were completely defleshed without utilizing chemicals or boiling. The sample was divided into three groups with differing conditions and/or types of organic material introduced. Some were buried in a marshy environment within wooden boxes constructed of ten wood types commonly utilized in coffin construction throughout U.S. history: hickory (Carya sp.), walnut (Juglans sp.), cherry (Prunus sp.), soft maple (Acer sp.), mahogany (Swietenia sp.), yellow pine (Pinus sp.), poplar (Populus sp.), cedar (Cedrus sp.), oak (Quercus sp.), and spruce (Picea sp.). Additional femora were deposited in plastic containers lined with the same wood types as above and filled with tap water. Five control bones were deposited in a container with tap water and five additional bones were placed in a container with commercial tannic acid. The final group of femora was deposited on the ground surface surrounded by four types of dead vegetation: evergreen pine needles (Pinus strobus), northern red oak leaves (Quercus rubra), sugar maple leaves (Acer saccharum), and acorns (Quercus rubra) collected from the Boston area. The bones were removed once a month from their experimental environments and left overnight to dry. The level of staining that manifested on the osseous material was recorded qualitatively using the Munsell Soil Color Chart under a consistent indoor 40- watt daylight light bulb. The staining was recorded after two months upon initiation of the study and every following month until the study’s completion. After the color staining was recorded, the bones were returned to their experimental environments until the next interval of data collection. An additional sample of 15 bones, which were previously buried with direct soil contact, was also analyzed. These bones were either buried within the O, A, or C soil horizons for an interval of 1, 2, or 3 years prior to analysis. They were photographed and the staining was classified on one occasion after which the bones were permanently withdrawn and not returned to the experimental environment. In all of the experimental environments, staining was present after two months of exposure, and the color darkened across the bone surface with each episode of data collection. Both groups exposed to the wood types displayed staining across the entire bone surface with a few major colors on the bone shaft, while minor colors were only expressed along the margins or as small patches along the shaft. As the buried boxes began to break down, which is commonly observed in coffin burials, soil was able to infiltrate the boxes and contact the bones. This process resulted in multiple shades of brown to be present in the staining across bones in multiple wood types. The bones in the plastic containers with wood exhibited a larger variation in color staining likely due to a higher concentration of tannins restricted to a smaller area around the bones combined with a lack of water inflow. The staining ranged from red for bones with mahogany to brown for bones with cedar to even dark gray or black on bones with walnut and tannic acid, respectively. The bones in plant matter differed in that the organic staining was sporadic, often with large areas of very pale brown or yellowish brown coloration and with smaller patches of shades of darker brown. The staining present on the buried soil bones was intermediate to the other samples, in that it was diffuse across the shaft with a large range of colorations present. The results from the present study indicate that staining can manifest on bone within a relatively short time frame once skeletonization occurs and a variety of colorations or patterns of staining can manifest based on the plant material. The present research demonstrates the potential of organic staining to aid in estimations of the postmortem interval as well as an environmental reconstruction through species identification.

There is a vast amount of information that the bones can offer and this can be on a macroscopic level, a microscopic level, or both. Understanding the changes in bone morphology can provide an understanding the broader picture of an individual’s life. The natural progression of changes in bone follows the natural progression of life. On the macroscopic level, morphological changes occur to skeletal elements such as the pubic symphysis and the sternal rib ends. These characteristics are used when determining the age of an individual. On the microscopic level, histological methods have been developed to determine the age of an individual based on changes in the microstructure of an element. While age at death estimations are based on a known sequence of change over time, time is not the only variable that effects bone morphology. Different pathologies and trauma can also alter skeletal elements. Just as disease processes and trauma act of signaling pathways in the body that cause changes in bone to occur, drug use also acts on the brain and can affect the same signaling pathways that are involved in bone regulation. It is hypothesized here that chronic cocaine use will have a detectable effect on bone morphology. The study sample used consisted of rats, some exposed to cocaine and others not. The experimental groups consisted of eleven Male Wistar Rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience at Boston University in Boston, Massachusetts. The rat’s self-administered cocaine at a 0.3 mg/kg dosage and the concentration of the IV solution was 1.6 mg/ml of cocaine. The control group includes five female Sprague Dawley rats (Rattus norvegicus) from the Boston University Animal Science Center in Boston, Massachusetts. These rats were exposed to a training protocol but were not given any drugs prior. All samples went through a dissection and maceration process to obtain the femora and humeri. Mass, volume, and length measurements were taken for each element to be used for later analysis. One femur was chosen at random from each rodent to be used for histological analysis. Femora were embedded in a 2-part epoxy resin and then cut in half using a diamond band saw. A Buehler IsoMet Low Speed Saw was used to obtain thinner sections and a Buehler MetaServ 250 grinder was used to achieve a thickness of 100-120 μm. India ink was used for staining and all stained sections were put onto slides, covered with Permount and a cover slip, and labeled. Upon microscopic examination, it was determined that the outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness would be measured and compared between the experimental and control groups. Photographs were taken of each cross-section at 1x and 4x magnification through the NIS-element software. The ImageJ image-processing program was used for analysis. The thickness of the outer circumferential lamellar bone and the thickness of the total cross-section was taken at four random locations of each 4x magnification photograph. The ratio of the thicknesses and the outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness alone were compared. When comparing density values calculated from the original mass and volume measurements, a significant difference was found between the control and experimental groups. Samples that had been exposed to cocaine had lower density values than those not exposed to any drugs. The control group mean density equaled 1.492 g/mL and the experimental group mean density equaled 1.082 g/mL. A significant difference was found between the ratio of the thicknesses and between the outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness alone. The experimental group had ratio values significantly higher than the control group. The control groups mean ratio equaled 0.2686 while the experimental groups mean ratio equaled 0.4427. This indicates that in the control group, the outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness, on average, covered about 25% of the total cross-section, and the experimental groups outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness, on average, covered almost 50% of the total cross-section. These results were similar when comparing the outer circumferential lamellar bone thickness alone. The control groups thickness was significantly lower than the experimental groups thickness. The control group’s thickness measurements had a mean of 189.7674 μm and he experimental group’s thickness measurements had a mean of 343.2753 μm. These results are just the preliminary data that shows that chronic cocaine use does have an effect on bone morphology on a microscopic level. Only on histological characteristic was analyzed but there are many more traits that can be analyzed.