There has been in Scotland, in recent years, a resurgence in interest the past history of our woodland, and their future management. The work of Lindsay in the 1970's did much to scotch earlier misconceptions about the utilisation and management of Highland woodlands (Lindsay 1974). Rather than being wholly exploitative, commercial influences during the 18th and 19th centuries may, in fact, have helped temper further woodland decline. It is now generally recognised that non-commercial influences may have been more significant in the evolution of woodlands in the historic period. It is now generally recognised that an understanding of past influences can contribute to future management strategies. This thesis therefore set out to examine the utilisation and management of the semi-natural woodlands of Lochtayside, and in particular, the commercial and non-commercial uses of the woodlands, and their subsequent management. It is hoped that results of this study would both suppliment our existing understanding of Scottish woodland history, and be taken into consideration in the debate on future management strategies. Initially, the study provides a context for the processes of woodland utilistion and management. Thus, the principal decisionmakers involved in the determination of woodland policies on Lochtayside were examined: the Campbells of Glenorchy. Both internal and external factors which might affect their decisions were also investigated. A critical evaluation of the sources for a woodland history study followed. Sources included, contemporary published works relating to the Highland rural society and the economy; the primary documentary source, i.e., the Breadalbane muniments; and cartographic sources, primarily, the Pont Map, the Roy Map, both the Fair and the Protracted versions, the 1769 Survey of Lochtayside and the 1st edition Ordnance Survey. A critical assessment of the advantages and disadvantages is regarded as fundamental to woodland history, and the study explored the limitations of using such sources, in particular the cartographic evidence. Finally, the non-commercial use of the produce and area of the semi-natural woodlands on Lochtayside, and the commercial use of these woodlands, including for bark, timber and charcoal was examined. Conclusions reached suggest there was a complex relationship between these two forms of use which affected the management of the woodlands, and ultimately the extent and composition of the woodlands on Lochtayside. It became clear that the relationship between the agriculture and woodlands was critical. The precise nature of this relationship, however, requires further examination.

Montane evergreen forests in northern Thailand have been severely fragmented and converted to agricultural lands and other forms of development that affect wildlife. The objectives of this study were to examine patterns and changes in montane evergreen forest patches, and document wildlife responses in terms of species diversity, abundance, and distribution. The study was conducted in Om Koi and Mae Tuen Wildlife Sanctuaries, Chiang Mai and Tak Provinces. LANDSAT TM imagery, aerial photographs, GIS, and the spatial pattern analysis program FRAGSTATS were employed to examine landscape patterns and changes. I found that Om Koi still maintained large patches (>400ha) with connectivity while Mae Tuen was comprised mainly of small isolated patches (<100 ha). Mae Tuen lost 2,640 ha of montane evergreen forest within 50 years compared to 888 ha in Om Koi. Road development and cabbage cultivation in Mae Tuen played a major role in accelerating forest loss. For the wildlife survey, I compared 4 forest patches in Mae Tuen, which are heavily fragmented and disturbed, with another 4 in Om Koi, where human influences are less. I used 1-km transects to survey animals in each patch. For mammals, 156 5 x 1m track recording stations were set up in each location for recording footprints. Over a 9-month period from September 1997 to June 1998 I found 9 species of mammals in Mae Tuen and 19 in Om Koi. I also found 89 species (1,238 detections) of birds in Mae Tuen and 119 (1,192) in Om Koi. Large patches (>400 ha) with connectivity still supported large mammals, primates, and a high diversity of birds. Bird diversities were significantly greater (P = 0.011) in large patches in Om Koi than in the small patches in Mae Tuen. Large frugivorous birds such as hornbills were found in Om Koi but there were none in Mae Tuen. Small patches (<100 ha) in Mae Tuen were still valuable for forest birds and virtually no penetration by clearing birds was found. Track counts gave 886 mammal tracks in Mae Tuen and 2,016 in Om Koi. Om Koi patches still support large mammals such as the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris), Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), and sambar (Cervus unicolor) but there were none in Mae Tuen. Three species of primates existed in Om Koi but they were virtually extinct from Mae Tuen. There were traces of a positive relationship between bird and mammal diversities and patch size. The distribution model for elephants suggests that villages in the middle of elephant seasonal migratory paths must be restricted from development and slash-and-burn cultivation to reduce the impact on elephant populations. The small population of bantengs (Bos javanicus) was confined to a small area as revealed by the distribution model. These animals need urgent and effective protection to avoid extirpation. Hunting, burning, and domestic cattle dispersing into the forest are other influences threatening wildlife in the areas. / Graduate

Economic growth or development, the process by which a nation gains wealth, is analysed in Part I. So far there is no theory which fully explains the phenomenon of sustained increases in the per capita income of a country. Probably, development is possible only if many economic and non-economic variables have values within certain relative ranges, which should be the subject of further study. In this thesis a dynamic consumption function has been postulated and used to construct a simulation model to help guide an economy's approach to sustained economic growth. Computer analyses with the model show the changes in per capita income as an economy approaches the "take-off" stage. They also suggest that, due to different existing values of the relevant variables, each country may find its optimum method of development to be different from others. It seems that early and large imports of foreign capital (a minimum of about 10 per cent of GNP annually), or a comparable reduction in personal consumption, are needed to initiate economic development. In Part II analyses indicate that a limited role can be played by forests in the poorly understood but urgently sought process of economic growth. Under usual circumstances, forests can help the economy move towards the take-off stage and meet the requirements created as development proceed. Forests, like any other resource, are important for development and human welfare. But, society must forego something when it uses any one resource. Foresters have often looked only at the benefits from forestry. It is essential to consider also the costs involved in using forests. The costs are in the form of missed opportunities to use forests fully or to replace them with a substitute for forest products. This thesis helps evaluate the role that forestry can play in economic development. The widely accepted principle of sustained yield forest management has been criticized. The principle of maximization of the present worth of net benefits from forest land is suggested as a desirable alternative. Forestry is different from other sectors in that (1) wood is its product as well as the major part of capital, (2) the period of production is long and (3) the product is very versatile. Forestry is suitable for being given priority in a national or regional development plan because it can (1) efficiently utilize under-employed rural resources, (2) produce important raw material for making paper which is necessary for human investments, (3) substitute for imports and earn foreign exchange in today's underdeveloped countries, (4) provide fuel and release cow dung for use in agricultural fields in some parts of the world and (5) serve as the basis for regional development where forests are plentiful. Commonly, if plans changes, wood grown for one purpose can be used easily for another. Most of these characteristics have been recognized by forestry economists but their studies have usually been based on historical evidence rather than analysis of possible future development. The future importance of forestry depends on its technological progress in relation to other sectors which are potential rivals of forestry. Forests can facilitate development and also help maintain economic growth. As per capita incomes rise, demands for forest products increase. Forest products needed to initiate and sustain development can be supplied best by managing forests in such a way that the present profits from forest property are maximized without detriment to the present worth of future profits. Profits then should be used for investment in the most economically desirable fields. It is shown that revised user cost concepts can be applied in forestry, These determine the optimum rate of forest harvesting and the amount of investments to be made in the present so that the present worth of the forests is maximized. Further refinements of decision theory are needed to solve the complex problems involved. Because there are many substitutes for them, only the most economical forest products will remain important in the long run. Forestry's role can be enhanced most effectively if foresters improve the technology employed in growing and utilizing forests. Finally, policy implications for underdeveloped countries in general, and India in particular, have been discussed. It is concluded that the policy of rigid sustained yield forest management should be rejected. It should be replaced by maximization of present worth of net benefits from forest land in each management unit. Then, forestry can play its maximum possible role in economic development. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Through the use of standards the fire-control problem can be divided into its many phases, and specifications set for its solution. Fire-control standards fall into two classes, (1) the overall fire-control objective, and (2) standards to be met in attaining that objective. The former, or primary standards, serve to keep the various phases of fire-control at the most economically justifiable level. The latter, or secondary standards, ensure that all fire-control efforts conform with the primary standards. A full schedule of fire-control standards is presented. A system for assessing presuppression and suppression, first presented in 1932, was revised and elaborated for application as a current secondary standard. The principal feature of this system is that certain specifications must be met by the many phases of presuppression and prevention efforts before a numerical rating indicating adequacy is obtained. A different scale of rating should be set up for each fire-control unit, depending on the purposes of forest management and the nature of the fire hazard. Fire-control standards were analyzed from a theoretical point of view and a new primary standard, called the actuarial standard, was developed. Data from three Ranger Districts on Vancouver Island were studied through the actuarial assessment of past fire-control costs and damage, past fire danger, and expected trends. It was found that the actuarial standard was the only one of the three major standards that provided an adequate analysis of the fire-control problem on a given area and produced realistic results. A new secondary standard, called the local incentive standard is also presented. This standard relies on the value of enthusiasm and personal incentive in obtaining good results from fire-control employees. Dealing with burned area, this standard establishes the allowable annual burn by decreasing the past average burned area by 10 per cent each year. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis is divided in to two parts: In the first part - A Preliminary Classification of the Engelmann Spruce - Alpine Fir Forests at Bolean Lake, B. C. - some ecological concept are discussed. The forest association is defined as an ecological unit that includes the characteristics of climate, soil, topography, flora and fauna; and is recognized by its floristic structure. The area studied is described. Data were collected from selected temporary plot. Soil profile was described and samples collected. Forest mensurational data were collected on tenth-acre plots. Two forest associations can be considered established. They are: 1. Picea Engelmannii - Abies Lasiocarpa - Vaccinium membranaceum - Rubus pedatus association. (Engelmann spruce - alpine fir - black huckleberry - trailing Rubus association). Designated the VM association. 2. Picea Engelmannii - Abies lasiocarpa - Vaccinium membranaceum - Dryopteris Linnaeana association, (Engelmann spruce - alpine fir - tall blueberry - oak fern association). Designated the VO association. Four other forest associations were tentatively identified. They are described because they are of interest to foresters. In the second part - An Evaluation of Two Forest Associations in the Engelmann Spruce - Alpine Fir Forests at Bolean Lake, B.C. - forest mensurational data from the vegetational plots were compared and analysed with data from permanent sample plots established independently. Differences in average height of dominant and codominant trees, in height of average dominant tree, and in volumes between the VO and VM associations were found. These results indicate that the VO forest association has better site quality than the VM forest association. Differences were also found to composition, number of trees per acre and in the distribution of stem size, these differences indicate that the VO and VM associations will probably give different responses to silvicultural treatment. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

In I968 the B.C. Forest Service provided growth and yield data in the form of nearly seven hundred volume/age curves. These were summarized quantitatively and sorted by electronic computer. Summaries were used for study of the criteria determining rotations in British Columbia. At the same time an assessment of these curves for other uses in forest land management was made. The curve summaries illustrated the need to consider differences in region,species, or growth type, site class and utilization standards. It was shown that a direct, negative correlation exists between rotation length and site index. This was done using the physical criterion which determines the rotation age at the culmination of mean annual increment in cubic foot volume. Because simple volume over age curves do not provide some important data such as numbers of trees per acre and average stand diameter, the study showed how several rough estimates of these would be derived theoretically. No positive conclusions could be drawn. The exercise did show, though, that the use of actual data describing stand density for fully stocked stands would benefit the forest land manager to a remarkable degree. The next step involved an assessment of the available financial alternatives to physical rotation determination, then compared them with approaches employed by two representative agencies in British Columbia. The possibility of using average stand diameter as a means of approximating the financial rotation was indicated. B.C. Forest Service volume/age curves now are useful as a tool of forest land management. They could be improved by the provision of information to define growth behaviour at full stocking, given various levels of stand density. Another conclusion was that the forest manager using the optimum accounting rate of return (single year) investment criterion and the economist using time preference criteria both have the same objective, namely the most efficient use of capital. This objective is more likely to be achieved by the manager in a series of Intermediate steps. At the same time the economist's time preference may span a single rotation. It was recommended that the B.C. Forest Service continue to develop forecasts of average stand diameter with their yield predictions as a means of introducing the financial implications of a chosen rotation. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

A description of the Canada Land Capability Classification for forestry, and an analysis of data collected in the East Kootenay and Vanderhoof Districts of British Columbia were presented. A brief description of the climate, geology, physiography and soils in the East Kootenays was given. A description of the objectives of the land capability for forestry and a survey of the pertinent literature was included. The determination of Forest Land Productivity, and the accuracy of assigned productivity classes, were reviewed. It was found that the sources of error in productivity determinations included: (1) insufficient plots, (2) problems in defining 'normal' stocking, (3) extrapolation of MAI to a base of 100 years, (4) a strong tendency to select plots on northern aspects, and (5) the exclusion of plots on soils not representative of soil series descriptions. Two alternative methods for assigning productivity classes were discussed. They were point sampling and regression techniques. Both the point sampling and regression techniques gave results comparable to the conventional method, i.e. MAI determinations based on 1/5th acre plots, within prescribed constraints, and only in the interior of British Columbia. Results obtained from point samples on Vancouver Island were significantly different from those obtained on one-twentieth acre plots. The assignment of productivity subclasses was discussed. Here the only method presently feasible is a value judgement made by research workers. The results of the study revealed three areas where further research would result in a more accurate Forest Land Classification. These areas include: (1) the measurement of environmental factors which determine forest productivity, (2) the use of field and greenhouse experiments to establish methods for determining the relative effect of environmental influences in limiting tree growth, and (3) a more extensive study of the use of various sampling techniques to get a direct measure of productivity in terms of MAI. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Quantitative measures of stand density and stocking are very important because only with full knowledge of the growing stock can a forest be managed efficiently. Stocking is concerned with fraction of area occupied with trees. Density is related to the degree of crowding within the area occupied. These quantitative values are determined by parameters that could be measured on the ground and on aerial photographs. The methods used to estimate height, crown width, and crown closure from aerial photographs are thoroughly described. The writer also describes the stocking and density conditions under which trees grow, with illustrations by both theoretical models and actual sample plot crown models. Forty-seven sets of ground and photo-measurements were taken and analysed by simple and multiple regression methods. A comparison of photo and ground values was then made to evaluate the usefulness of aerial photographs for density and stocking measurements. The correlation of the ratio of height (Ht) to crown width (CW) from the ground and photo data to age, site index, crown closure, basal area, adjusted basal area, crowding factor and adjusted crowding factor were also studied. Eight assumptions regarding normality of density and full stocking were made so that the interrelationship between the individual density and stocking measurements could be studied more effectively. It is concluded that Ht/CW ratios are measurable from aerial photographs and shown that they are useful as a measure of stand density and stocking. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Forests and the forest industry have been dominant features in North Central British Columbia since initial settlement of the area in the 1900's. Trees have been logged and sawed into lumber to be sold to the residents of the three prairie provinces, and more recently, peeled for plywood and chipped for pulp to be exported abroad. As a result of the region's peripheral location and dependence upon these distant markets, the industry has had to adjust continuously to external pressures. Changing conditions such as expansion or contraction of markets, government decisions to build railways, changes in provincial forest management policies, and the introduction of a pulp economy to the area, have forced the industry to adapt its processes and products so that the North Central Interior could compete with other forest product regions. A gradual rationalization of the industry has occurred in both the structure and location of producing units within the region. Several periods in the development of the industry are identifiable as a series of external stimuli, and internal responses. In its initial years, in the early 1900's, the industry consisted of a few sawmills cutting rough lumber along the upper Fraser River. Later, in the years prior to World War II, poor market conditions restricted the industry in size, technological improvement and areal spread. The buoyant market conditions of the 1940's and 1950's encouraged growth in the number of operations and dispersion of cutting operations into remote areas. At this time, shortages of labour, equipment and capital combined with an indefinite forest management policy promoted the development of a large number of small, undercapitalized operations. The growth of large-scale production units, diversification of production and areal concentration of conversion plants have been the responses of the industry in the 1960's. A number of external forces such as changes in provincial forest management policies, changing market demands and rising labour costs have encouraged these responses. This thesis presents an overview of the development of the forest industry, rather than concentrating upon the individual locative decision. Particular firms are used, however, to illustrate changes in structure and location which are characteristic of certain periods. Emphasis is also placed upon the role exogenous forces and traditional locative factors have played in the changes. Interviews with entrepreneurs in the area, and data from trade journals and government publications provide most of the information presented here. The changes in size and location of producing units within the forest industry of North Central British Columbia from 1909 to 1966 are outlined first, with particular reference to external influences and industry responses. Comparisons are made of the structure and spatial patterns of the industry in 1925, 1950 and 1966. An analysis of (a) the external forces, (b) the internal adjustments of the region and, (c) the resultant pattern of location, constitutes the major part of the study. A summary of these forces, predictions of the future pattern of development and an outline of the general findings of this examination conclude the thesis. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Review of the literature on the future of wood resulted in the conclusion that long term future demand will be for large quantities of cheap fibre. There is likely to be a reduction in emphasis on the form and dimension of individual trees. Mechanization and automation are defined and the relative importance of tree establishment within the total forest industry noted. Some general principles of forest mechanization are proposed and discussed. The New Zealand potentials for wood fibre production and forest mechanization are analysed. Reforestation history of radiata pine (Pinus radiata, D.Don.) in New Zealand is briefly described, and the basis for, and problems with, bare-root planting are discussed. An alternative tree establishment system, involving the precision setting of a bullet-like container enclosing a seed, is proposed. The case for this theoretical system is argued on the basis of its potential biological equality with bare-root planting, which the author considers to be sufficiently promising to be worthy of field investigation, and its suitability to total mechanization. Some possible costs of the system are calculated and potential benefits are postulated. It is concluded that the concept is worthy of careful field study in New Zealand. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate