The purpose of this thesis is twofold: first, to review the literature on economic impact analysis in general, and port-economic impact literature in particular; and second, to use this background to undertake an economic impact assessment. The case study for this thesis is Fraser Port, which is located along the lower reaches of the Fraser River in British Columbia's Lower Mainland metropolitan region. The port is administered by the Fraser River Harbour Commission. This thesis is about production, people, and the economic significance of Fraser Port. This thesis is not an analysis of economic impact theory, but a review and application of port impact identification techniques. All data and impacts presented relate to 1992. Ports perform a necessary function in a nation's trading system by providing a transshipment connection between land and water modes of transport. As such, the port is strategically connected to the production of the many goods passing through its facilities. For this thesis, the impact of the various commodities passing through the port is termed port-associated. The port also manifests its presence through its daily operations and generates numerous employment opportunities both within and beyond the confines of the waterfront. The economic impact driven by this activity is termed port-industry and most closely reflects the impact of the working waterfront. To complete the impact assessment of the port-industry category, a survey was undertaken to collect sales revenue and employment information. This data was then aggregated into specific industry sectors and a total economic impact was estimated using appropriate economic multipliers. The result was a picture of direct, indirect, and induced activity resulting from the daily operations of the port. The port-associated category was assessed in a slightly different manner. The value of each cargo was determined and, where appropriate, was assessed for the economic activity related to its production. This activity is not generated by the port, but is associated with Fraser Port through the use of its transshipment services. The results of the assessment reveal that the port-industry category generates approximately one quarter of a billion dollars of provincial gross domestic product (GDP). This led to a total GDP impact across Canada of close to $275 million. Employment amounted to about 2,113 full-time equivalent positions in B.C. and nearly 3,400 across Canada. In 1992, the total value of import and export cargo passing through Fraser Port was approximately $6.1 billion, $3.8 billion of which was international imports. The remainder, $2.3 billion, was made up of domestic outbound and inbound cargoes, and international exports. It is important to recognize that these two categories of port activity are measures of different effects. The results of the port-industry and port-associated categories should not be added to produce a total Fraser Port impact. Adhering to this recommendation will ensure that the figures, and thus Fraser Port, will not be misrepresented to the public. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In the canyon where the Fraser River flows through the Cascade mountains, migrating salmon supported a large, dense native population. By 1850 the Hudson’s Bay Company had several forts on other parts of the Fraser River and its tributaries but found the canyon itself inaccessible. Prior to the gold rush, whites rarely ventured there. Discoveries of gold in Fraser River in 1856 drew the attention of outsiders and a rush of miners, and led eventually to permanent white settlement on mainland British Columbia. Contrary to much historiography, these were not foregone results. Instead, the gold rush was a complex process of negotiation and conflict among competing groups as they sought to profit from gold discoveries. The Hudson’s Bay Company sought to gain and retain control of the resource by incorporating it into its trade and by excluding outsiders. But miners arrived by the thousands, and the Company was forced to try to regulate miners’ access to the resource. However, as a group, miners were cohesive and self-reliant; they had little need for outside intervention. The Hudson’s Bay Company was unable to regulate them while pursuing its own ideas of profit. The British government subsequently revoked the Hudson Bay Company’s trade license, and proclaimed British Columbia a colony. In efforts to impose its own ideals of order on the gold fields, the government introduced a new colonial administration which, following a chain of command extending from London through Victoria to the Fraser, sought to organize the population in the spaces of the Fraser Canyon. Government authority was reinforced by the legal system’s flexible responses to the diverse population’s activities it deemed illegal. By studying the interactions of natives, miners, traders, administrators, and the legal system, I have attempted to untangle the ways in which white men negotiated their particular racist and masculinist ideals and sought to impose them in the spaces of the Fraser Canyon. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Wood debris has been a natural component of the Fraser River system for centuries. However, with the development and expansion of a diverse forest industry in British Columbia, the volume of waterborne logging wastes being discarded into the river has gradually increased to the point where logging slash, uncontrolled sawlogs, trimmed log ends and dislodged bark now present a serious problem to the users of the Lower Fraser and its shorelands. Where water pollution can be defined as any residual discharge into a watercourse which causes both a deterioration in the quality of the receiving waters and some form of related social costs, sawlogs and other types of wood debris present a rather unique example of a pollutant to the Lower Fraser River. From this perspective, the available literature on pollution control provides an appropriate methodology for defining and analyzing the issues and problems associated with the presence of this material in the waterway. In 1972, uncontrolled sawlogs accounted for 9.2 million cubic feet of wood debris or roughly 80 per cent of the total debris load in the river. These logs were responsible for approximately 4.5 million dollars in costs to fishermen, pleasure boat owners, harbour authorities, and private logging companies. While it is realized that there are substantial additional costs related to the environmental impacts of sawlog debris, more studies are needed to determine the significance of these impacts on / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The purpose of this study is to examine the social opportunity cost of preserving specified recreation sites along the lower Fraser River. In achieving this purpose it does the following: 1. it examines the institutional arrangements whereby land is allocated to specific uses, 2. it identifies the potential recreation sites for possible preservation, 3. it assesses the nature and extent of the conflict between recreation sites and existing and potential industrial shoreland use, 4. it develops an analytic framework for examining the social opportunity cost of preserving recreation sites, 5. it applies the framework to determine the benefits which the region might forgo if it were to preserve the recreation sites identified. An examination of the institutional setting found that private markets alone may not provide recreation facilities in the lower Fraser in accordance with society's willingness to pay for them. Public institutions have evolved to regulate the market, however, and an analysis of the social opportunity cost of preserving recreation sites is made in order to assist decision makers in future shoreland allocations. For this analysis to be meaningful it was necessary to identify specific recreation sites, and to determine the nature and extent of the conflict between these and industrial use. Thirty-two major recreation sites were identified. About two-thirds of these were found to conflict with potential industrial needs for shoreland designated industrial by the Regional Plan, and with log storage activities of the forest industry. Ideally a technique for allocating shoreland to recreational or industrial uses should be based on an assessment of the benefits and costs of alternative land uses. However, an opportunity cost approach is all that is practicable at this time because of the difficulties associated with evaluating present and future recreation demands. A qualitative approach to the evaluation was devised because past attempts to measure social opportunity cost were not appropriate in this situation where concern was primarily with demand far into the future. The analysis focussed on the rental value differences between industrial use of shoreland and upland, the supply and demand for industrial shoreland, and the cost of log storage alternatives. The analysis produced four main findings. First, most firms do not attach a significantly higher rental value to shoreland than to upland sites. Second, the supply of waterway access is much greater than anticipated industrial demand, and the opportunity cost of preserving land with recreation potential is zero in the short run. Third, the study area has sufficient land designated industrial that a small reduction for the preservation of recreation sites will net affect the land market. Four, seasonal storage leases and bundle booming can be implemented to free recreation sites of stored logs without incurring a net opportunity cost. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

A comparative, year long (15 month) study of three lakes (Whonock, Munday, Como) in the Lower Fraser Valley, British Columbia was undertaken to gain information on the physicochemical and seasonal limits of scale-bearing Synuraceae (Chrysophyta). In addition, sporadic collections were made in different lakes in this region to augment the information provided from the three main lakes. The synuracean taxa are reviewed with worldwide distribution lists, and environmental and seasonal information are discussed. Thirty-one taxa of Chrysophyceae were identified, of which 20 are in the Synuraceae. Eight taxa within this family are new records for British Columbia, viz. : Mallomonas cratis var. asmundiae Wujek et Van der Veer Mallomonas papillosa Harris et Bradley Mallomonas doignonii var. tenuicostis Asmund et Cronberg Mallomonas transsylvanica Peterfi et Momeu Mallomonopsis ouradion (Harris et Bradley) Harris Paraphysomonas vestita (Stokes) de Saedeleer Synura splendida Korshikov Synura glabra Korshikov It was found that the Synuraceae are not restricted to cold waters, as often assumed. Some taxa are present throughout the year. They do seem to favour acidic and sometimes dystrophic environments, and it is suggested that factors such as pH or water chemistry should be investigated as probable controlling factors for synuracean populations. Of the 11 non-synuracean Chrysophyceae noted', six are new records for the Province: Bicoeca kepneri, Chrysococcystis elegans, Dinobryon crenulatum, Epipyxis lauterbornii, Epipyxis utriculus var. acuta, and Eusphaerella turfosa. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

The Fraser Estuary was investigated five times under varying flow regimes. The surface distribution of dissolved manganese consistently exhibited a maximum value at a salinity ranging from 4 to 12 ppt. Experimental results and field data suggest this peak does not result from the desorption nor dissolution of riverborne suspended particulate manganese. The excess metal is derived from the estuarine bottom sediments. Desorption or dissolution of manganese from the estuarine bottom sediments resuspended due to the advancing salt wedge enhances the dissolved manganese concentration in the bottom waters, especially in the toe of the salt wedge. This manganese enrichment may also be influenced to a lesser extent by the concurrent release of some interstitial water with enriched dissolved manganese concentrations due to the in situ reduction of amorphous manganese oxides. The subsequent entrainment and mixing of water from the toe of the salt wedge into the outflowing river water causes a downstream increase in the dissolved manganese content, and eventually determines the peak manganese concentration and salinity. Further downstream mixing with saline waters having relatively low manganese levels causes surface concentrations to decrease. Thus, the dissolved manganese distribution can be explained in terms of two conservative dilution curves which intersect at the manganese peak. The dissolved oxygen generally behaves conservatively in both the surface and bottom waters of the Fraser Estuary. The removal of alkalinity may occur at low salinity, however, alkalinity exhibits conservative behaviour through most of the salinity range. The surface distribution of pH can be replicated theoretically only when mixing in the surface is considered as a two step process. The alkalinity behaves conservatively in the surface waters of the Strait of Georgia. The pH and dissolved oxygen display seasonal variations related to primary productivity and mixing processes. The distribution of dissolved manganese in surface waters of the Strait of Georgia is determined mainly by the dilution of Fraser River water. Bottom waters have enhanced dissolved manganese concentrations due to reductive remobi1ization of manganese from the sediments. Concentrations of dissolved manganese at mid-depths are determined by seasonal variations in the stability of the water column. Depth profiles of suspended particulate manganese indicate increasing concentrations with depth. This may result from the oxidative precipitation of manganese and/or the resuspension of bottom sediments. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The quality of surface runoff in an urbanized watershed was studied in order to determine the effects of land use and hydrologic conditions. Sampling sites were established so as to be representative of varying land uses and were monitored over a six month period so as to reflect changing flow conditions . Twelve sites, sampled weekly, were established in the Brunette River Basin, an urban watershed located in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. Water samples, taken at each site, were analyzed for nineteen water quality parameters. Information relating to the hydrology and land uses of the basin was taken from established sources. Multiple regression and analysis of variance techniques were used to relate the land use and hydrology of the basin to the water quality. Total phosphorus, suspended solids and turbity concentrations were directly related to the percentage open space. Specific conductance and the nitrogen compounds were directly related to the percentage residential land. Eight parameters, but particularly turbidity and suspended solids, were dependent on stream discharge. The sensitivity of the data varied from site to site depending on the characteristics of the contributing areas. Discussion was directed toward the spatial and temporal nature of the data, the variance in the data, and the associated problems of scale. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines the role of environmental non-government organizations in relation to the role and responsibility of government for wetland conservation in British Columbia. The role of a small community-based environmental organization called the Burns Bog Conservation Society in decisions about Burns Bog, a large privately-owned wetland located in the Lower Mainland, is analyzed. Drawing from a broad range of literature on environmentalism and conservation, the thesis begins with an historical account of the environmental movement, giving a broad view of environmental conservation and the role of environmental organizations. A typology of roles and analytical framework is subsequently derived from a study of environmental non-government organizations involved in managing water resources in British Columbia's Fraser River Basin. Three main roles, advocacy, supplemental and transformative, are discussed as they relate to activities prior to and during the Burns Bog Analysis, a provincially established land use study of Burns Bog. This research found that a small community-based environmental organization, through advocacy, can ensure that ecological integrity is not neglected as a result of poor planning and decision-making. The case study demonstrates that a small environmental organization can pressure governments to broaden their view of land-use and environmental issues, assuring more informed decision-making. An environmental organization can also supplement the regular roles and responsibilities of government, first by supplying a service that government is unable or unwilling to provide, and second by participating in and legitimizing consensus-based decision-making processes. The case study demonstrates how a small environmental organization can provide and review information and participate in creating options and solutions in land-use decisions. Finally, an environmental organization can influence, overtime, the fundamental restructuring of government planning and decision-making processes and transform the way society thinks and operates. The thesis concludes that environmental non-government organizations have an important role to play in ensuring the recognition and conservation of British Columbia's wetlands in government planning and decision-making processes; in informing and educating government and the public about ecological systems and their values; and in counter-balancing strong economic, political and development interests.

Biogenic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a diverse class of hydrocarbon released during the normal physiological processes of some species of vegetation. These substances can participate in many chemical reactions and in some cases have potential to promote the formation of ground level ozone. The Fraser Valley located in southwestern British Columbia occasionally experiences these air pollution episodes during the summer. In order to effectively reduce the frequency and magnitude of these episodes, it is important that we understand the relative role of biogenic hydrocarbons from the abundant vegetated surfaces in the region. The thesis presents the results of measurements conducted on four common tree species in the lower Fraser Valley using a branch enclosure apparatus. Hydrocarbon emission rates from Cottonwoods trees were approximately one hundred times greater than those from coniferous trees and were dominated by the compound isoprene. Monoterpenoid emissions from four tree species were highly variable in magnitude and demonstrated no statistically significant relationship with temperature. Comparison of the observed results with a simple model from the literature shows relatively close agreement in the case of isoprene but poor agreement with monoterpene emissions. Results of these branch enclosure studies were extrapolated to larger scales to yield an areal emission rate assuming reasonable biomass densities. Isoprene measurements in this study reveal an areal emission rate approximately twenty times that of the assumed value in current emissions inventories. This discrepancy could be quite significant considering its magnitude and the possible sensitivity of the chemical reactions that produce ground level ozone to changes in isoprene concentration.

A major contributor to global warming is the increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Land use management may be a means to countering global warming by increasing the carbon sink potential. Terrestrial carbon budgets were prepared for forested (Douglas-fir), agricultural (hay), and urban sites in Abbotsford, B.C. The results indicate that the greatest amount of carbon is stored in the forested sites, followed by the hay sites, with the lowest amount in the urban sites. To maximize carbon in storage the use of trees either as forests or in pockets within the landscape is the best option. To simulate and to expand the utility of these carbon budgets, the study used the CENTURY model. The results of the simulations indicate that forests are a major carbon sink as was found earlier. Carbon storage under hay is at a relative steady state, except during the cultivation years when it becomes a carbon source. Lawn in an urban setting is a carbon source. The results of the simulations suggest that management can be used to increase the carbon sink. It also indicates that soils are a major carbon pool representing 20% of the forest, 90% of the hay, and 95% of the lawn budgets. For the general public and decision-makers to become more aware of the impact of changing land use on carbon storage, at the lot, local, or regional levels, they require a userfriendly decision-making tool. A derivative of the CENTURY model, CLU (for CENTURY Land Use), was developed. It was designed to be user-friendly and at the same time maintain the integrity of the parent model. It allows the user to input site-specific data and obtain site related output carbon data on a component basis, which can be used to assess how a potential change in land use or management may affect the amount of carbon in storage. The model should be suitable as a research tool and for planning and educational purposes.