<p> Exercise intensity is one of the major factors determining the utilization of carbohydrates (CHO) and lipids in mammalian skeletal muscle. Using indirect calorimetry, we determined maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and whole-body rates of CHO and lipid oxidation in rats selectively bred for high and low running capacity (HCR's and LCR's) during exercise at 50, 60, 70 and 80%VO2max. Previous studies have revealed a pattern of selection where mammals with different aerobic capacities use the same proportions of lipids and CHO when exercising at the same relative exercise intensity and as intensity increases, CHO use increases and lipid use decreases. The present results showed that the HCR's had a VO2max and distance run to exhaustion that was 1.3 and 4.0 times greater than the LCR's respectively. Also, both groups of rats followed the pattern of fuel selection seen in previous studies where the same proportions (in%) of lipids and CHO are used at the same relative exercise intensity. On an absolute scale, the HCR's used more lipids and CHO than the LCR's at all exercise intensities but the results were not always statistically significant. We also determined the exercise intensity that elicited the greatest lipid use to be 60% VO2max in both groups.</p> <p> In order to explain these patterns of fuel selection, metabolic indicators, metabolites and enzymes, in skeletal muscle were measured at rest and post exercise for one hour at 60%VO2max. Specifically, ATP and phosphocreatine (PCr) metabolite concentrations were determined in the medial and lateral gastrocnemius, extensor digitorum longus (EDL), tibialis anterior (TA), and soleus muscle. The medial gastrocnemius and soleus were analyzed (pre and post exercise samples were combined) for their oxidative and glycolytic enzyme activity by measuring citrate synthase (CS), cytochrome oxidase (COX), β-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase (HOAD), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) . PCr and ATP concentrations did not change pre and post exercise and between the HCR's and LCR's except for the EDL where there was a significant decrease (P<0.05) in both metabolites after exercise in both groups of rats. For the enzyme measurements, CS and COX activities were higher (P<0.05) in the HCR's for the soleus and HOAD activities were also higher in the HCR's medial gastrocnemius compared to the LCR's. We concluded that the HCR's have a greater oxidative capacity as shown by their greater aerobic and endurance capacity (VO2max and distance to exhaustion), their ability to oxidize a greater absolute amount of lipids and CHO's at the same relative exercise intensity, and their higher activities of oxidative enzymes in the soleus (CS and COX) and medial gastrocnemius (HOAD). Future research into the mechanisms involved in explaining these patterns of fuel selection may include examining fatty acid transport proteins, fatty acid and CHO availability, fiber types, and catecholamines.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

L’utilisation du glucose exogène est un déterminant de la performance sportive, particulièrement lors d’épreuves de plus d’une heure. Les caractéristiques des sujets, les conditions d’exercice et d’ingestion du glucose sont tous des facteurs pouvant affecter l’oxydation de glucose exogène (OGE). De plus, la co-ingestion d’autres substrats et l’environnement dans lequel l’activité est pratiquée peuvent également avoir un impact sur l’OGE et sa contribution à la fourniture d’énergie. Il est souvent difficile, voire impossible, de comparer les résultats des études qui ont examiné l’OGE due au manque d’uniformité dans la méthodologie. Afin de clarifier l’effet de ces facteurs sur le taux d’OGE, ainsi que sa contribution à la fourniture d’énergie lors de l’exercice prolongé, une revue de littérature et une méta-analyse ont été effectuées. Le sexe, l’âge, la masse corporelle, le VO2max des participants, le moment d’ingestion, le taux d’ingestion, la concentration de la solution, la puissance absolue et relative de l’exercice, et la durée de l’exercice ont été utilisés comme modérateurs. Les facteurs pouvant influencer le taux d’OGE et sa contribution à la fourniture d’énergie pendant l’exercice prolongé rapportés dans cette méta-analyse confirment une relation dose-réponse curvilinéaire. D’autres facteurs, tels le VO2 et le %VO2max de l’exercice, ainsi que le moment d’ingestion, permettent également d’expliquer la relation observée dans le taux d’oxydation exogène et sa contribution à la fourniture d’énergie. La grande majorité des études ayant été effectuées sur une population restreinte (hommes sportifs ou en santé, âgés entre 20 et 30 ans), davantage de travaux sont nécessaires chez les femmes et les sujets d’âge et de masse corporelle différents afin d’éviter les biais d’interprétation dus à au sexe ou aux caractéristiques physiques. Les résultats de cette méta-analyse pourront aider à améliorer les recommandations sur l’ingestion de glucides au cours de l’exercice prolongé. / Exogenous glucose oxidation is a determinant of sports performance especially in activities lasting over 1 hour. Many factors concerning the subjects, the substrate and the exercise itself could influence the capacity of the human body to oxidize exogenous glucose. Furthermore, the co-ingestion of other substrates, as well as the environment in which the activity is performed, could also influence the rate of exogenous glucose oxidation (EGO) and its contribution to the energy yield. The lack of uniformity in methodologies used to investigate EGO makes it very difficult, and in some cases even impossible, to make direct comparisons between study results. In an attempt to shed some light on the impact of those various factors on the rate of EGO and its contribution to the energy yield, the literature was reviewed and a meta-analysis was done. The sex, age, body mass, VO2max, timing of ingestion, rate of ingestion, solution concentration, exercise’s absolute and relative intensity, and exercise duration were used as moderators. Many factors can contribute to EGO and its contribution to the energy yield and the results from this meta-analysis confirm a dose-response relationship. Additional factors, such as exercise VO2 or %VO2max, and ingestion timing also have a significant effect. Further studies might be needed with women and subjects with different age and body mass to avoid bias due to an unbalanced number of studies when comparing subject characteristics. These results should help improve nutritional recommendations for carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise.

Animals rely on lipids as a major fuel for endurance exercise because they pack more joules per gram than any other fuel. However, in contrast to mammals, information on how the mobilization of lipids from endogenous stores is managed to meet the needs of energy metabolism in swimming fish is sparse. Information on in vivo rates of lipid mobilization in swimming fish has been limited to relatively low exercise intensities and has only been investigated in a single species. Therefore, the goal of my thesis was to address this paucity of information by quantifying lipolytic rate in rainbow trout during graded exercise and fatty acid mobilization in Atlantic salmon during prolonged endurance exercise. In the first part of my work, I hypothesized that like mammals, rainbow trout stimulate lipolysis above resting levels to a peak with increasing work intensity, but subsequently lower its rate at high intensities when ATP production from carbohydrates becomes dominant. To test this hypothesis, I measured the rate of appearance of glycerol (Ra glycerol) in the blood (resulting from the breakdown of triacylglycerol (TAG)) of trout at rest (control) and during graded exercise from rest to Ucrit. Results showed that Ra glycerol in trout averaged 1.24 ± 0.10 µmol kg -1 min-1 and that this rate was unaffected by exercise of any intensity. These experiments revealed that rainbow trout do not modulate lipolysis during exercise. Furthermore, I calculated that baseline lipolytic rate was much higher in trout than in mammals and that this rate is in constant excess of the requirements of energy metabolism. My second investigation focused on measuring fatty acid mobilization in Atlantic salmon. To date, the majority of studies on energy metabolism in salmonids have used rainbow trout as the ubiquitous model for salmonids. I postulated that domesticated rainbow trout may be far less impressive athletes than their wild anadromous form and other salmonids. In this regard, I proposed that studying energy metabolism in Atlantic salmon (even those from aquaculture) may help to deepen our understanding of the physiology of true long-distance migrant fish. To study the effects of prolonged endurance exercise on the mobilization of fatty acids from endogenous stores in these fish, I monitored the rate of appearance of fatty acids (Ra NEFA calculated from Ra Palmitate) in the blood during 72 hours of sustained swimming. I found that contrary to what has been previously described in rainbow trout, Ra Palmitate (and by proxy, Ra NEFA) is reduced by approximately 64% (from 0.75 ± 0.12 µmol kg-1min-1 to 0.27 ± 0.06 µmol kg-1min-1 and from 19.3 ± 7.8 µmol kg-1min-1 to 6.9 ± 2.0 µmol kg-1min-1 for Ra Palmitate and Ra NEFA, respectively) during prolonged endurance exercise in Atlantic salmon. However, like in trout, even this reduced rate of fatty acid mobilization exceeds the requirements of energy metabolism at rest and during swimming. While further experiments will be necessary, I speculated that this reduction in Ra NEFA may be caused by a partial inhibition of lipolysis to reduce the energetic cost of TAG:FA cycling and optimize fuel budgets during prolonged endurance exercise. This thesis provides the first in vivo measurements of lipolysis during graded exercise in salmonids and the first in vivo measurements of fatty acid mobilization in Atlantic salmon. From the results mentioned above, I concluded that salmonids mobilize lipids in constant excess of the requirements for energy metabolism, possibly to allow for rapid reorganization of membrane phospholipids in response to changing environmental conditions. However, more anadromous and migratory phenotypes may rely on a tighter control of lipolysis to minimize the costs of substrate cycling and conserve energy on limited fuel stores.