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<p>The study of ongoing mergers is vital to understanding how intense star bursts are triggered, and how luminous infrared galaxies and ultra luminous infrared galaxies are formed. The Antennae (NGC 4038/39), at a distance of only 24.9 Mpc, represents the nearest example of a major merger between two gas rich spirals and provides us with a unique laboratory for studying molecular gas and star formation. I have obtained two fully sampled observations of the Antennae using the Herschel SPIRE Fourier Transform Spectrometer which I have supplemented with JCMT CO J = 3 − 2 observations. I detect CO, CI and NII emission throughout both the overlap region and the nucleus of NGC 4038. I measured the integrated intensity of the CO J = 4−3 to 8−7 and find that the overlap region is brighter for all but the J = 4 − 3 line. I find that, in the nucleus of NGC 4038, the CO spectral line energy distribution peaks at the 4−3 transition, while in the overlap region it peaks at the 3−2 transition. I modelled the CO emission using the non-local thermal equilibrium radiative transfer code RADEX coupled with a Bayesian likelihood code. I find a warm (Tkin > 600K) lower density (nH2 ∼ 200cm−3) component of molecular gas in the nucleus of NGC 4038, and similarly in the overlap region (Tkin > 600 K, nH2 ∼ 300cm−3) and find widespread evidence for multiple components of molecular gas throughout the system. These warm components in both regions correspond to ~ 1% of the total molecular gas. I find no evidence of x-ray dominated regions, cosmic rays or turbulent heating being the primary source of heating throughout the galaxy, while photodissociation regions or supernova and stellar winds may be the primary source of heating throughout the galaxy.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

<p>The currently-favoured cosmological paradigm, Lamda-CDM, predicts that galaxies are built up from smaller galaxies in a bottom-up process known as hierarchical merging. Lambda-CDM is extremely successful for large-scale structures, but is less so for the detailed features of individual galaxies. We can study these features - the galaxies’ foundations and the remnants of the smaller components that built them - only in the closest galaxies in which we can resolve individual stars. In this thesis, we use data from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT)/MegaCam as part of the Pan-Andromeda Archaeological Survey (PAndAS) to observe M33 (the Triangulum Galaxy) and the detailed features of its old stellar population. The study of these details is vital for our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution. We search for two types of components within the old stellar population: globular star clusters and the faint, diffuse stellar halo. We find only one new unambiguous outer halo star cluster, in addition to the five previously known in the M33 outer halo (r=10-50 kpc). A further 2440 cluster candidates are identified, which we analyse using two different types of simulated clusters. We are able to describe the type of clusters that are likely to remain hidden from our searches. Our study of a population of red giant branch (RGB) stars far from the M33 disk reveals a low-luminosity, centrally concentrated component which we interpret as the discovery of M33’s halo. It is everywhere in our data fainter than mu_V ~ 33 mag arcsec^−2, with scale length r_exp ~ 20 kpc, an overall luminosity not more than a few percent of the total luminosity of M33, and is possibly also not azimuthally symmetric. For M33 to have so few outer halo clusters compared to M31 and to have such a low-luminosity halo, with the possible asymmetry that we see, suggests tidal stripping of M33’s halo components by M31 - a view that is also favoured by the morphology of the disk substructure and recent modelling.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe, but we are still learning about fundamental aspects of their formation. In particular, we would like to understand how galaxies acquire their stars, and where and when these stars were born. In this thesis, we investigate these questions by the study of the dynamical and chemical abundances of galaxies in the local universe. Extending previous works in the field, we have developed a Bayesian framework to obtain luminosity-weighted ages, metallicities and alpha-element abundances. In our initial study, we have surveyed six galaxy groups to understand how this particular environment may be related to morphological transformations. We have obtained a sample of 59 group members with a wide range of dynamical masses, which have been used to demonstrate that the mass-metallicity relation extends to low-mass galaxies. We then proceeded to the study of NGC 3311, a cD galaxy at the center of the Hydra I cluster. We have confirmed previous observations of the velocity dispersion profile of the system, which indicates the presence of a large photometric substructure which illustrates the ongoing accretion of the diffuse stellar halo. We performed a study of the stellar populations of the system, which indicated that stars in the diffuse stellar halo have been accreted from past merger events of large elliptical galaxies, whereas the central region of the galaxy is most probably the remnant of a rapid dissipative collapse. Moreover, the metallicity of the stars in the photometric substructure suggest an ongoing disruption of dwarf galaxies possibly related to the presence of an infalling group. These results are consistent with the two-phase model for the mass assembly of galaxies, in which massive ellipticals are formed by dissipative processes at high-redshifts, but continue to build-up their halos by the continuous accretion of satellite systems. / Galáxias são os principais blocos de construção do universo, mas ainda estamos aprendendo sobre aspectos fundamentais da sua formação. Em particular, gostaríamos de entender como as galáxias adquirem suas estrelas, e onde e quando essas estrelas nasceram. Nesta tese, investigamos estas questões pelo estudo da dinâmica e das abundâncias químicas de galáxias no universo local. Estendendo trabalhos anteriores na área, desenvolvemos um método Bayesiano para a obtenção de idades, metalicidades e abundância de elementos alfa ponderados pela luminosidade. Em nosso estudo inicial, pesquisamos seis grupos de galáxias para compreender como esse ambiente em particular pode estar relacionado às transformações morfológicas. Obtivemos uma amostra de 59 membros de grupos com uma vasta gama de massas dinâmicas, que foram utilizados para demonstrar que a relação massa-metalicidade se estende para galáxias de baixa massa. Então, procedemos ao estudo de NGC 3311, uma galáxia cD no centro do aglomerado Hydra I. Confirmamos as observações anteriores do perfil de dispersão da velocidades do sistema, que indicam a presença de uma grande subestrutura fotométrica que ilustra a acreção atual de estrelas no halo estelar difuso. Foi realizado um estudo das populações estelares do sistema, que indica que as estrelas no halo estelar difuso foram obtidas em eventos passados de fusão de grandes galáxias elípticas, enquanto que a região central da galáxia é provavelmente o remanescente de uma rápido colapso dissipativo. Além disso, a metalicidade das estrelas na subestrutura fotométrica sugere a ruptura atual de galáxias anãs relacionadas com a presença de um grupo se movimentando em direção ao centro do aglomerado. Estes resultados são consistentes com o modelo de duas fases para a acumulação da massa de galáxias, no qual galáxias elípticas gigantes são formadas por processos dissipativos em altos redshifts, mas continuam a acrescentar estrelas em seus halos pelo deposição de sistemas satélite.

Nous étudions la formation d’étoiles et d’amas d’étoiles dans les galaxies dominées par le gaz. Ce terme réfère en premier lieu aux galaxies de l’époque du pic de formation d’étoiles dans l’histoire de l’Univers, qui s’est déroulé vers z ~ 2, mais aussi à leurs analogues locaux, les galaxies naines de marées. En premier lieu, en utilisant des simulations numériques, nous montrons que les galaxies massives typiques de z=2, avec une fraction de gaz d’environ 50%, forment des structures gazeuses massives (10**7-8 masses solaires) et liées gravitationnellement, appelées grumeaux dans la suite. Ces grumeaux ne se forment dans des galaxies avec une fraction de gaz inférieure à 25%. Nous présentons ensuite une étude observationnelle d’un analogue local de grumeaux de galaxies à z=2, la galaxie naine de marée NGC 5291N. Une analyse des raies d’émission de cette galaxie montre la présence de chocs sur les pourtours de l’objet. La photométrie des amas d’étoiles de cette galaxie montre que les amas les plus jeunes (< 10 millions d’années) sont significativement moins massifs que les amas plus âgés. Ceci peut être le signe de fusions progressives d’amas et/ou d’une forte activité de formation stellaire dans ce système il y a environ 500 millions d’années.Dans un second lieu nous étudions comment la fraction de gaz influe sur la formation d’étoiles et d’amas stellaires dans des fusions de galaxies à z=2. En utilisant des simulations numériques nous montrons que ces fusions n’augmentent que relativement peu le taux de formation d’étoiles et d’amas stellaires comparativement aux fusions de galaxies locales, à faible fraction de gaz. Nous montrons que ceci est due à une saturation de plusieurs facteurs physiques, qui sont déjà présents naturellement dans les galaxies isolées à z=2 et sont donc comparativement peu accentués par les fusions. Il s’agit de la turbulence du gaz, des zones de champ de marée compressif et des flux de matières vers le noyau de la galaxie. Nous montrons aussi que les structures stellaires formées au sein des grumeaux de gaz sont préservées par la fusion : elles sont éjectées des disques et orbitent dans le halo de la galaxie résultante de la fusion, où elles peuvent devenir les progéniteurs de certains amas globulaires / We study the formation of stars and stellar clusters in gas-dominated galaxies. This term primarily refers to galaxies from the epoch of the peak of the cosmic star formation history, which occurred at z ~ 2, but also to their local analogues, the tidal dwarf galaxies.Firstly, using numerical simulations, we show that the massive galaxies at z = 2, which have a gas fraction of about 50%, form massive (10**7-8 solar masses) and gravitationally bound structures, which we call clumps thereafter. These clumps do not form in galaxies with a gas fraction below 25%. We then present an observational study of a local analogue of a z = 2 galactic clump, which is the tidal dwarf galaxy NGC 5291N. The analysis of emission lines show the presence of shocks on the outskirts of the object. Photometry of this galaxy’s stellar clusters show that the youngest clusters (< 10 million years) are significantly less massive than older clusters. This could be the sign of ongoing cluster mergers and/or of a strong star formation activity in this system about 500 million years ago).Secondly, we study how the gas fraction impacts the formation of stars and stellar clusters in galaxy mergers at z = 2. Using numerical simulations we show that these mergers only slightly increase the star and stellar cluster formation rate, compared to local galaxy mergers, which have a lower gas fraction. We show that this is due to the saturation of several physical quantities, which are already strong in isolated z=2 galaxies and are thus less enhanced by the merger. These factors are gas turbulence, compressive tides and nuclear gas inflows, We also show that the stellar structures formed in the gaseous clumps are preserved by the fusion: they are ejected from the disk and orbit in the halo of the remnant galaxy, where they may become the progenitors of some globular clusters

Cet exposé résume les travaux que j'ai effectués depuis 1985, l'année de mon doctorat. Ces travaux se subdivisent en trois principales branches: 1) La chimie des environnements circumstellaires (étoiles évoluées - enveloppes oxygénées ou carbonées - et étoiles jeunes). 2) La dynamique gravitationnelle appliquée aux a) l'évolution dynamique et cosmologique des groupes des galaxies; b) effets de projection dans les groupes et amas; c) nature des groupes compacts; d) fréquence des fusions de galaxies et ségrégation morphologique dans les groupes et amas; e) formation de galaxies. 3) Les grands projets d'observation et en particulier le programme DENIS de cartographie complète du ciel austral en infra-rouge proche.

Since the 30's and Edwin Hubble's famous classification, galaxies are usually separated in twogroups : the late-type galaxies (LTGs) and the early-type galaxies (ETGs). The LTGs family ismainly made of spiral galaxies (S) while the ETGs family is composed of elliptical (E) and lenticular(S0) galaxies. A morphological study of all these galaxies revealed that around 60% of LTGs and45% of S0 present a bar. It has also been shown that, in the local Universe, galaxies fall into twobig groups : the blue cloud mostly populated by LTGs and the red sequence mainly made of ETGs.Several mechanisms are responsible for this distribution and the secular evolution is obviously animportant one to examine, sepcially in the context of bars, as an important number of studiesshowed the importance of bars in the dynamics and evolution of a galaxy.The goal of my thesis is to study the importance of the formation and ensued bar-drivenevolution influence on ETGs evolution. In that context, I have performed N-body simulations ofbarred (and unbarred) galaxies in order to investigate the following issues.First of all, I focused on the influence of a bar in a galaxy when modelling it with a dynamicalmodel assuming an axisymmetric mass distribution. As these kinds of models allow to determine themass-to-light ratio M/L, thus the dynamical mass of an observed galaxy, but also its inclinationand its anisotropy, it is important to evalute the consequence of the presence of a bar on theseparameters. I have shown that, depending on the galaxy inclination and the bar position angle,M/L is most of the time biased and overestimated, and this can be up to 25%. The size andstrength of the bar also seem to be important factors but a deeper study has to be done to quantifythis preliminary result.In a second step, I have studied the role of bars on the mass and metallicity redistributionsin a lenticular galaxy. I confirmed that the presence of a bar, due to its influence on its hostsystem dynamics, flattens pre-existing metallicity gradients. Moreover, I showed that the degree offlattening and the position of affected regions are directly correlated with the bar structure and thelocation of the dynamical resonances. Nonetheless, this dynamical effect cannot explain the varietyof observed ages and metallicity gradients. The consequences of a barred gravitational potentialon the gas dynamics and the stellar formation should therefore be investigated. This is the topicof the last set of numerical simulations produced which will allow to better understand the globalinfluence a bar has on the secular evolution of ETGs.

Durant les deux dernières décennies, de nombreux efforts ont été apportés pour comprendre le processus de formation des structures de l'Univers jeune. Les avancées dans les technologies observationnelles atteintes aujourd'hui permettent d'observer des galaxies de plus en plus loin, y compris celles responsables de la réionisation cosmique qui a eu lors du premier milliard d'années de l'Univers. L'objectif principal de cette thèse a été de poser des contraintes sur la nature et l'abondance des sources responsables de la réionisation cosmique. Plus précisément, l'étude s'est portée sur les galaxies qui forment des étoiles et qui ont une émission Lyman-alpha (LAE) entre z ~ 3 et 6.7. Il est à noter que cette thèse a été réalisée au sein du consortium MUSE, tout nouvel instrument installé au VLT en janvier 2014 dont nous avons exploité les données du GTO. Ce travail de thèse a permis de confirmer la puissance inégalée de MUSE au niveau de la détection et de l'étude de sources extragalactiques faibles sans aucune présélection. Nous avons observé quatre amas-lentilles dont l'amplification de la lumière permet la détection de sources à faible luminosité, au prix d'une diminution du volume d'Univers observé. Nous nous sommes d'abord focalisés sur l'étude de l'amas de galaxies Abell 1689 afin de structurer une méthodologie applicable aux autres amas. En comparant la densité volumique des LAEs détectés aux différentes fonctions de luminosité (FdL) de la littérature, nous sommes arrivés à la conclusion suivante : la pente de la loi de puissance que décrit la fonction de Schechter pour la partie la plus faible est plus petite que alpha <= -1.5, ce qui signifie que le nombre de LAEs croît extrêment vite vers les faibles luminosités. Nous avons ensuite appliqué cette méthode aux autres amas de notre échantillon observés par MUSE. Les LAEs identifiés et mesurés dans ces amas sont typiquement dix fois plus faibles que ceux observés dans les champs vides (39 < log(Lya) < 42.5). Environ un tiers de ces LAEs n'a pas de contrepartie dans le continuum jusqu'à AB ~ 28 sur les images HST et n'aurait donc jamais été vu sur des relevés pointés. Le catalogue final contient plus de 150 LAEs, ce qui nous a permis d'étudier la contribution des objets les plus faibles, ainsi que l'évolution de la pente en fonction du redshift. Les résultats obtenus semblent confirmer que la pente alpha est proche de -2 pour l'ensemble des LAEs compris entre 2.9 < z < 6.7. On observe aussi une évolution de alpha, qui passe de -1.8 à -1.95 entre z ~ 3-4 et z ~ 5-7, un résultat original et non dépendant des données utilisées pour la partie brillante de la FdL. L'intégration de cette FdL permet ensuite de calculer la densité de photons ionisants émis par ces LAEs et de déterminer leur impact relatif sur la réionisation cosmique. A l'avenir, la profondeur de champ atteinte par les données du James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) va repousser la limite de détection de ces galaxies jusqu'à z ~ 8. L'utilisation de spectrographes dans le proche infrarouge comme MOSFIRE/Keck, KMOS/VLT ou le tout récent EMIR/GTC permettent déjà de confirmer des candidats à z >= 7. Cette thèse a apporté des nouvelles contraintes sur la partie faible de la FdL des LAEs pour un redshift allant jusqu'à z ~ 6, un début donc de ce que l'on va pouvoir faire dans les années à venir pour des redshifts de l'ordre de z ~ 7-8. / Significant efforts have been put for the past two decades to understand the formation process of structure in the early Universe. The recent technological advances in the observational field allow for observing galaxies further and further, even the ones responsible for the cosmic reionization which occurred during the first billion years of the Universe. The main goal of this thesis was to impose constraints on the nature and the abundance of the sources responsible of the cosmic reionization. More specifically, the study was focused on the star-forming galaxies that have a Lyman-alpha emission (LAE) between z ~ 3 and 6.7. This thesis has been conducted within the framework of the MUSE consortium, a brand new instrument installed on the VLT in January 2014, as part of the exploitation of the Guaranteed Time (GTO). This thesis work has enabled us to confirm the unrivalled power of MUSE concerning the detection and the study of weak extragalactic sources without any preselection. We have observed four lensing clusters which magnify the incident light and make it possible to detect faint sources, at the expense of a decrease of the volume of the observed Universe. At first we started with the study of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689 in order to build up a methodology we intend to apply on other galaxy clusters. By comparing the volume density of the detected LAEs to the luminosity functions (LF) coming from the literature, we have reached the following conclusion : the slope of the power law from the Schechter function is smaller than alpha <= -1.5, which means that the number of LAEs increases drastically towards the faint luminoities. Then we have applied the new-build method to the other galaxy clusters of our sample observed with MUSE. The LAEs we have detected and measured in this sample are roughly ten times fainter than the ones observed in blank fields thanks to the lensing effect (39 < log(Lya) < 42.5). About one third of them lacks a counterpart in the continuum up to AB ~ 28 on the HST images and couldn't have been seen on targeted surveys. The final catalog includes more than 150 LAEs, this amount has enabled us to study the contribution of the faintest ones and also the evolution of the slope according to the redshift. The results of this work seem to confirm that the slope alpha is close to -2 for all the 2.9 < z < 6.7 LAEs. Furthermore, one can notice the evolution of alpha from -1.8 to -1.95 between z ~ 3-4 and z ~ 5-7, an original result and irrespective of the data set used to complement the present sample towards the bright region of the LF. The integral of the LF allows for working out the ionizing photons density emitted by these LAEs and for determining their relative impact on the cosmic reionization. In the future, the depth of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations will improve the limits of galaxy detection, certainly up to z ~ 8. The use of near-IR spectrographs such as MOSFIRE/Keck, KMOS/VLT or the very recent EMIR/GTC already provides the confirmation of z >= 7 candidates. This thesis brought new constraints on the faint-end part of the LF of LAEs for a redshift up to z ~ 6, which represents a beginning with respect to all we can do in the coming years for redshifts up to z ~ 7-8.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / I combine 610 MHz Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) data, 1.4 GHz Very Large Array (VLA) data and 1.4 GHz Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) observations, encompassing a ∼ 4 square degree field (sq. deg. field) centred on the verification strip of the Spitzer First Look Survey (FLS) field (RA = 17h18m00s, Dec = 59◦30′30′′), to study radio sources down to fluxes of about 0.1 mJy. The results of an analysis of a sample of 107 multi-component radio sources obtained by cross-correlating the VLA and GMRT catalogues are shown. The spectral index analysis shows that the majority of multi-component sources are steep-spectrum sources. Nevertheless the spread in the spectral distribution is wide, with a significant number of ultrasteep,flat or inverted sources. By cross-correlating 107 multi-component radio sources with the optical catalogues of Marleau et al. (2007) and Papovich et al. (2006), 23 objects were identified and spectroscopically classified as galaxies. Some of them are classified as star-forming or star-burst galaxies, perhaps indicating that AGN and starformation activity are ongoing in the same galaxy. The measured redshifts span the range 0 < z < 1.8 and peak at z ∼ 0.2. According to their radio power (P), 6 of the identified objects are in the range of FR II sources (P1.4GHz > 1024.5W/Hz) while 17 are in the range of FR I sources (P1.4GHz < 1024.5W/Hz). Most of the sources having P1.4GHz < 1024.5W/Hz are compact and few are extended and peculiar, while all sources in the range of P1.4GHz > 1024.5W/Hz are extended. Further optical followup is recommended to allow a more complete census of the sub-mJy population and more information on AGN feedback from such sources.

Galaxies are the major building blocks of the universe, but we are still learning about fundamental aspects of their formation. In particular, we would like to understand how galaxies acquire their stars, and where and when these stars were born. In this thesis, we investigate these questions by the study of the dynamical and chemical abundances of galaxies in the local universe. Extending previous works in the field, we have developed a Bayesian framework to obtain luminosity-weighted ages, metallicities and alpha-element abundances. In our initial study, we have surveyed six galaxy groups to understand how this particular environment may be related to morphological transformations. We have obtained a sample of 59 group members with a wide range of dynamical masses, which have been used to demonstrate that the mass-metallicity relation extends to low-mass galaxies. We then proceeded to the study of NGC 3311, a cD galaxy at the center of the Hydra I cluster. We have confirmed previous observations of the velocity dispersion profile of the system, which indicates the presence of a large photometric substructure which illustrates the ongoing accretion of the diffuse stellar halo. We performed a study of the stellar populations of the system, which indicated that stars in the diffuse stellar halo have been accreted from past merger events of large elliptical galaxies, whereas the central region of the galaxy is most probably the remnant of a rapid dissipative collapse. Moreover, the metallicity of the stars in the photometric substructure suggest an ongoing disruption of dwarf galaxies possibly related to the presence of an infalling group. These results are consistent with the two-phase model for the mass assembly of galaxies, in which massive ellipticals are formed by dissipative processes at high-redshifts, but continue to build-up their halos by the continuous accretion of satellite systems. / Galáxias são os principais blocos de construção do universo, mas ainda estamos aprendendo sobre aspectos fundamentais da sua formação. Em particular, gostaríamos de entender como as galáxias adquirem suas estrelas, e onde e quando essas estrelas nasceram. Nesta tese, investigamos estas questões pelo estudo da dinâmica e das abundâncias químicas de galáxias no universo local. Estendendo trabalhos anteriores na área, desenvolvemos um método Bayesiano para a obtenção de idades, metalicidades e abundância de elementos alfa ponderados pela luminosidade. Em nosso estudo inicial, pesquisamos seis grupos de galáxias para compreender como esse ambiente em particular pode estar relacionado às transformações morfológicas. Obtivemos uma amostra de 59 membros de grupos com uma vasta gama de massas dinâmicas, que foram utilizados para demonstrar que a relação massa-metalicidade se estende para galáxias de baixa massa. Então, procedemos ao estudo de NGC 3311, uma galáxia cD no centro do aglomerado Hydra I. Confirmamos as observações anteriores do perfil de dispersão da velocidades do sistema, que indicam a presença de uma grande subestrutura fotométrica que ilustra a acreção atual de estrelas no halo estelar difuso. Foi realizado um estudo das populações estelares do sistema, que indica que as estrelas no halo estelar difuso foram obtidas em eventos passados de fusão de grandes galáxias elípticas, enquanto que a região central da galáxia é provavelmente o remanescente de uma rápido colapso dissipativo. Além disso, a metalicidade das estrelas na subestrutura fotométrica sugere a ruptura atual de galáxias anãs relacionadas com a presença de um grupo se movimentando em direção ao centro do aglomerado. Estes resultados são consistentes com o modelo de duas fases para a acumulação da massa de galáxias, no qual galáxias elípticas gigantes são formadas por processos dissipativos em altos redshifts, mas continuam a acrescentar estrelas em seus halos pelo deposição de sistemas satélite.