Thesis (Ph.D.)--Murdoch University, 2003. / Thesis submitted to the Division of Science and Engineering. Bibliography: leaves 154-174.

Reproduction de : Thèse de doctorat : Sciences : Océanologie biologique. Environnement marin : Toulon : 2005. / Titre provenant du cadre-titre. Bibliographie p. 277-301.

Thesis (M. Sc. (Zoology & Entomology))--Rhodes University, 2005.

Thesis (Ph. D. (Zoology and Entomology))--Rhodes University, 2005.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Rhodes University, 2005. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on July 21, 2006). Includes bibliographical references (p. 251-270).

Au cours de cette étude, le cycle de vie de Paracartia grani, un copépode calanoïde appartenant à la famille des Acartiidae, a été déterminé dans la lagune de Thau. En effet, ce copépode aurait une implication dans le cycle de vie du parasite Marteilia refringens, affectant les productions de bivalves. Un suivi bimensuel de la communauté mésozooplanctonique effectué sur deux ans à une station fixe dans la lagune a permis de déterminer que P. grani est l'espèce d'Acartiidae dominante en été. Son cycle de vie se compose de deux phases : une phase pélagique d'avril à janvier, et une phase benthique de février à début avril durant laquelle l'espèce subsiste dans le sédiment sous la forme d'œufs de diapause. L'analyse de la structure de la population (spectre de taille, contribution des stades de développement et sexe ratio) a permis de déterminer que 9 générations se succédaient pendant l'année. L'étude de l'influence de 3 paramètres environnementaux (température, salinité et concentration en chlorophylle a) sur la dynamique de ponte de l'espèce a révélé que la production d'œufs de P. grani était principalement régie par la température et que l'augmentation rapide de celle-ci au printemps permettait de déclencher l'éclosion des œufs de diapause. Le second objectif de cette étude s'est attaché à décrire la dynamique du parasite M. refringens chez P. grani et les bivalves Mytilus galloprovincialis et Ruditapes decussatus dans la lagune de Thau. Des analyses en histologie et hybridation in situ ont permis de décrire les différentes formes du parasite chez ces 3 espèces. La recherche de M. refringens par PCR chez les copépodites de P. grani a révélé la présence d'ADN de parasite de juin à novembre, période à laquelle de nouvelles moules apparaissent infectées. Les expériences de mesure de l'efficacité de rétention des différents stades de développement de P. grani par la moule ont permis de montrer que tous les stades de développement peuvent être impliqués dans le cycle de vie de M. refringens, en particulier les œufs du copépode qui ont par ailleurs présentés des résultats positifs en PCR. Notre étude a ainsi permis de préciser les interactions entre copépode, parasite et moules mais n'a pas permis d'élucider complètement le cycle de Marteilia refringens. Des questions restent posées concernant notamment les voies de transmission du parasite du copépode vers les moules et concernant l'impact potentiel du parasite sur le copépode lui-même. / In this study, the life cycle of Paracartia grani, a calanoid copepod belonging to the Acartiidae family was determined in Thau lagoon. Indeed, the copepod involvement in the life cycle of the parasite Marteilia refringens affecting the bivalves production is suspected. Mesozooplanktonic community was monitored twice a month over two years at a fixed station in the lagoon. Sampling has identified P. grani as the acartiid dominant species in summer. From April to January, the copepod is found in the water column while from February to early April it remains in the sediment as diapausing eggs. The analysis of the population structure (size spectrum, contribution of developmental stages and sex ratio) has revealed that there are 9 generations per year. The study of the influence of three environmental parameters (temperature, salinity and chlorophyll a concentration) on the dynamic nesting species indicated that P. grani egg production was mainly governed by temperature and its rapid increase in spring could trigger the hatching of diapause eggs.The second objective of this study aimed to describe the dynamics of the parasite M. refringens in P. grani, and in the bivalves Mytilus galloprovincialis and Ruditapes decussatus in the Thau lagoon. Histological and in situ hybridization analysis allowed describing the different forms of the parasite in these three species. Research of M. refringens by PCR in P. grani copepodites revealed that the parasite DNA presence in the copepod from June to November, when new mussels appeared infected. Experiments to measure the retention efficiency of the different stages of development of P. grani by mussels have shown that all developmental stages could be involved in M. refringens life cycle, especially copepod eggs that have also shown positive results by PCR. Our study has allowed clarifying interaction between copepods, parasites and mussels but not elucidate completely M. refringens life cycle. Questions remain especially regarding way of transmission of parasite from copepods to mussels and the potential impact of the parasite on the copepod itself.

La moule de Méditerranée Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mollusque Bivalve), est un animal important tant au niveau écologique qu'économique. Comme tous les invertébrés, elle ne possède qu'un système d'immunité innée pour lutter contre les infections. Cependant, étant constamment exposée à une grande variété de microorganismes invasifs et potentiellement pathogènes, et existant depuis plus de 500 millions d'années, son système immunitaire paraît très efficace. C'est afin de mieux comprendre comment celui-ci fonctionne, que ces travaux concernant la structure des peptides impliqués dans la réponse immunitaire, ainsi que leur régulation, ont été entrepris. Ils ont permis (i) de déterminer que le niveau d'expression constitutive des gènes liés à l'immunité, ainsi que la nature et l'intensité de la régulation de leur expression, sont fortement dépendant de la saison et de l'origine géographique des moules ; (ii) de confirmer le rôle essentiel de la structure tridimensionnelle des peptides antimicrobiens (AMP) dans les activités biologiques ; (iii) de déterminer la structure complète de la mytimycine, peptide strictement antifongique, ainsi que de la cytokine MIF ; (iv) de confirmer l'existence d'un fort polymorphisme des ARNm codant les molécules effectrices de l'immunité au niveau individuel, intra et inter-populationnel ; (v) de déterminer que les niveaux d'expression des gènes liés à l'immunité dépendent des microorganismes injectés, ce qui suggère une reconnaissance/réponse spécifique; (vi) de démontrer l'existence d'une voie de transmission du signal fonctionnelle depuis des récepteurs membranaires de type Toll (TLR) jusqu'au facteur NF-κB, mais pas d'une voie de type IMD. Ainsi, la réponse immunitaire innée de la moule apparait extrêmement complexe, mettant en jeux des effecteurs polymorphes dont l'expression est modulée en fonction de la saison, de l'origine géographique et de façon spécifique en réponse à différents microorganismes. Par contre, la transcription de leurs gènes pourrait être sous le contrôle d'une seule voie de transmission du signal. / The Mediterranean mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis (bivalve, mollusc), is an ecologically and economically essential animal. As other invertebrates, it possesses only an innate immune system to protect itself against infections. However, constantly exposed to a large variety of invasive and potentially pathogen microorganisms, and existing since more than 500 million years, its immune system seems very effective. To improve our understanding on such a system, present works were made concerning the structure and expression regulation of peptides involved in the immune response. They allowed (i) to determine that the constitutive expression levels of genes linked to immunity, as well as the nature and intensity of their expression regulation, are strongly dependent on the season and on the geographical origin of mussels; (ii) to confirm the crucial role of the three-dimensional structure of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) in biological activities; (iii) to determine the complete structure of mytimycine, a strictly antifungal peptide, as well as of cytokine MIF; (iv) to confirm the existence of an extended polymorphism of mRNA coding for the molecular effectors of immunity in individuals, within and between populations; (v) to determine that expression levels of genes linked to immunity are strongly dependent to the injected microorganisms, suggesting a specific recognition/ response; (vi) to demonstrate the existence of a functional signalling pathway from Toll-like receptors (TLR) to NF-κB factor, but not of an IMD-like pathway. In conclusion, the immune response of the mussel appeared extremely complex, involving polymorphic effectors expressed differently according to the season, the geographical origin, and specifically in response to different microorganisms. On the other hand, their gene transcription could be under the control of only one signal transmission pathway.

The current explanation for the absence, or low abundance, of filter-feeding invertebrates from some rocky shores is that because of local variation in nearshore oceanographic conditions, larvae do not arrive in sufficient numbers to establish populations. One putative consequence of this is that macroalgae are able to establish dominance in areas where filter-feeders (especially mussels) do not recruit well. While macroalgae have been transplanted to mussel-dominated shores with varying success, the survival, growth and reproduction of transplanted mussels has not been tested in areas dominated by macroalgae. To determine specifically what tips the balance between shores dominated by filter-feeding invertebrates and those dominated by macroalgae, I monitored the recruitment of intertidal mussels at four sites on the Kaikoura coast: two with mussels present and two algal-dominated. No significant differences in mussel recruitment rates were found between habitats and recruitment intensity at all sites was found to be very low. Recruitment limitation is not the reason for the absence of mussels from algal dominated shores but some form of limitation does occur to reduce the number of arriving mussels. Predation effects were examined by transplanting juvenile mussels into caged, uncaged and control treatments. No significant differences in predation rates between habitats were found and transplanted mussels in open cages at all sites were removed within 3 days. Mobile fish predators appeared to be the most likely cause of this intense predation. Growth of transplanted mussels into algal and mussel habitats was found to be significantly different. Mussels grew faster in mussel dominated habitats and after 6 months in algal dominated habitats, all mussels had died. The outcome of these experiments indicates that there is a close relationship between recruitment, survival and growth which tips the balance and allows the existence of mussel beds along the Kaikoura coastline.

Thesis submitted to the Division of Science and Engineering. Bibliography: leaves 154-174.

The current explanation for the absence, or low abundance, of filter-feeding invertebrates from some rocky shores is that because of local variation in nearshore oceanographic conditions, larvae do not arrive in sufficient numbers to establish populations. One putative consequence of this is that macroalgae are able to establish dominance in areas where filter-feeders (especially mussels) do not recruit well. While macroalgae have been transplanted to mussel-dominated shores with varying success, the survival, growth and reproduction of transplanted mussels has not been tested in areas dominated by macroalgae. To determine specifically what tips the balance between shores dominated by filter-feeding invertebrates and those dominated by macroalgae, I monitored the recruitment of intertidal mussels at four sites on the Kaikoura coast: two with mussels present and two algal-dominated. No significant differences in mussel recruitment rates were found between habitats and recruitment intensity at all sites was found to be very low. Recruitment limitation is not the reason for the absence of mussels from algal dominated shores but some form of limitation does occur to reduce the number of arriving mussels. Predation effects were examined by transplanting juvenile mussels into caged, uncaged and control treatments. No significant differences in predation rates between habitats were found and transplanted mussels in open cages at all sites were removed within 3 days. Mobile fish predators appeared to be the most likely cause of this intense predation. Growth of transplanted mussels into algal and mussel habitats was found to be significantly different. Mussels grew faster in mussel dominated habitats and after 6 months in algal dominated habitats, all mussels had died. The outcome of these experiments indicates that there is a close relationship between recruitment, survival and growth which tips the balance and allows the existence of mussel beds along the Kaikoura coastline.