Trade liberalization has different impacts on groups of individuals in the society. Some of them improve their situation, the other ones get worse. Due to the existing gender inequali-ties the distribution of benefits from trade liberalization between women and men is dis-proportional. The paper indentifies main areas, in which are the gender inequalities the most significant. African women are limited in their access to education, productive resources and to technologies, but also to the means of financing. These limits prevent women from full participation in trade and therefore also in economic growth of the country. The creation of new jobs in export-oriented sectors presents the main contribution of trade liberalization for African women. The income they are getting form those jobs are usually used to finance the education and health care for children, that is why their quality of life may improve. The paper concentrates on the reciprocal relation between liberalization and gender equality, which is demonstrated on the status of women in trade and in export-oriented sectors.

Cette thèse traite deux questions relatives aux inégalités salariales entre hommes et femmes. Le premier et le deuxième chapitres analysent l'impact du commerce international sur les écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes, tandis que le troisième chapitre se pose la question de l'influence du secteur informel sur ces écarts. Le premier chapitre montre que le commerce international peut avoir des effets opposés sur l'écart de salaire entre hommes et femmes via le canal de la concurrence. Les prédictions du modèle théorique sont testées par une analyse empirique des écarts de salaire en Uruguay sur une période incluant la création du Mercosur. Le deuxième chapitre étudie la façon dont l'intégration commerciale peut modifier les écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes différemment en fonction des qualifications. Le modèle théorique montre que le commerce international creuse les écarts salariaux entre hommes et femmes qualifiés et réduit cet écart entre hommes et femmes non qualifiées. Le troisième chapitre conduit une analyse empirique des écarts de salaire entre hommes et femmes dans les emplois formels et informels au Brésil. Alors que l'écart brut de salaire est plus élevé dans le secteur informel que dans le secteur formel, les résultats indiquent que cette différence est un artefact de la composition de l'emploi dans les deux secteurs. Dans le secteur informel, la correction du biais de sélection réduit le différentiel de salaire, ajusté des caractéristiques productives, qui n'est plus significatif. Dans le secteur formel, en revanche, l'écart de salaire, ajusté des caractéristiques productives et corrigé de la sélection, demeure élevé et fortement significatif. / This dissertation consists of three essays on gender wage inequality. The two first chapters explore the impact of international trade on the gender wage gap, while the third chapter deals with the role of the informal sector in shaping the gender wage gap. By integrating the taste-based theory of discrimination and the oligopolistic trade literature, the first chapter shows that international trade can have two opposite effects on the gender wage gap through the channel of competition. The predictions of the models are confirmed by an empirical analysis of gender wage gaps in Uruguay following the Mercosur trade agreement. The second chapter investigates how international trade impacts the gender wage gap at different points of the skill distribution, by incorporating statistical discrimination into a model of trade with heterogeneous firms and workers. The model shows trade integration reduces the gender wage gap among high-skilled workers but reduces the gender wage gap among unskilled workers. The third chapter investigates whether the gender wage gap differs in the formal and the informal segments of the labour market in Brazil. It shows that the higher raw wage gap in the informal sector is an artificial effect of the different sorting of men and women into formal and informal jobs. First, the female advantage in observable productive characteristics is stronger among formal employees. Second, selection into work status differs between men and women. In the informal sector, the selection-corrected gender wage gap is reduced and not significant anymore. In the formal sector, however, the selection-corrected gender wage gap is large and highly significant.

La publicidad social ha sido partícipe en el enfrentamiento y solución de diversas problemáticas sociales a lo largo de los años, moldeando las conductas y los comportamientos de la humanidad para lograr el bienestar común. En el siglo XXI, uno de los problemas más latentes es la desigualdad de género, frente a la cual nace como respuesta el empoderamiento femenino como causa social. En el Perú, entidades públicas y privadas luchan por cerrar las distintas brechas existentes entre hombres y mujeres, entre ellas, la brecha digital; mediante campañas de publicidad social que buscan empoderar al género femenino y fomentar la igualdad en el país. Entre estas campañas, se puede mencionar “Giving Tuesday” de Laboratoria, organización que promueve la participación de mujeres en el sector tecnológico. Esta campaña busca donaciones monetarias para poder solventar los gastos de capacitación que reciben las mujeres y así impulsar su inserción laboral como programadoras, UX designers, desarrolladoras web, etc. El presente trabajo analiza que elementos de esta campaña social contribuyen en la construcción del empoderamiento en mujeres entre 18 a 28 años interesadas en el sector tecnológico peruano. La metodología que se plantea para la presente investigación tendrá un carácter cualitativo, se tomará una muestra de 20 estudiantes mujeres de las carreras Ingeniería de sistemas, software, de la información, empresarial e industrial para ser entrevistadas a profundidad. / Social advertising has been a key factor in confronting and solving diverse social issues over the years, shaping human behavior to achieve common well-being. In the 21st century, one of the most latent problems is gender inequality, against which female empowerment arises in response as a social cause. In Peru, both public and private institutions fight to close the existing gaps between men and women, among them, the digital one; through social advertising campaigns that seek to empower women and promote equality in the country. Among these campaigns, we find the case of “Giving Tuesday” from Laboratoria, an organization that promotes women participation in the Technological industry. The campaign seeks for donations to cover the training expenses that women receive and thus boost their employment as programmers, UX designers, web developers, etc. This paper analyzes how the Giving Tuesday social campaign from Laboratoria contributes to empower women between 18 and 28 years interested in the Peruvian technology sector. The methodology proposed for this research will be qualitative, it will be taken a sample of 20 female students from the careers of Systems Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Engineering, Industrial Engineering and Business Engineering, for the conduction of interviews. / Trabajo de investigación

In recent decades, more and more countries have opened up to international trade and the effects it has on society is an area that is both studied and discussed to a large extent, without reaching consensus. Understanding the full consequences of trade is important in order to make political decisions and create fair trade agreements. Previously, trade and gender inequality’s impact on poverty have been studied as two separate areas and in previous research we have not found studies examining the relationship between trade, poverty and gender inequality together. The purpose of this study is therefore to combine two areas that have previously been treated separately and to examine how international trade affects poverty and the role of gender inequality in the tiger economies. Tiger economies is a collective name for the rapidly growing economies of Asia and the countries are characterized by liberalized markets and openness to free trade. The study is carried out through a mediation analysis and examines whether inequality between the sexes acts as a mediator in the context of how trade affects poverty. For the estimation, panel data for eight countries over 30 years are used. The dependent variable poverty is measured as household consumption per capita, while trade flow and gender inequality and four other control variables are explanatory variables. The results show that both increased trade and higher gender equality lead to increased household consumption and thus reduced poverty in the tiger economies. The study also shows that gender inequality acts as a mediator for the relationship between trade and poverty, which means that trade leads to a reduction in poverty directly, but also that trade leads to increased female participation in the labor market, which in turn reduces poverty. Gender inequality and trade should therefore be studied together to examine the effect and the exclusion of one of the variables may lead to incorrect conclusions about what affects poverty in the tiger economies. / De senaste decennierna har allt fler länder öppnat upp för internationell handel och vilka effekter det har för samhället är ett område som både studeras och diskuteras i stor utsträckning, utan att nå konsensus. Att förstå de fulla konsekvenserna av handel är av betydelse för att kunna fatta politiska beslut och skapa rättvisa handelsavtal. Tidigare har handelns och ojämlikhet mellan könens påverkan på fattigdom studerats som två separata områden och vi har i den tidigare forskningen inte funnit studier som undersöker sambandet mellan handel, fattigdom och ojämlikhet mellan könen tillsammans. Syftet med denna studie är därför att kombinera två områden som tidigare behandlats separat och undersöka hur internationell handel påverkar fattigdom och vilken roll ojämlikhet mellan könen har i tigerekonomierna. Tigerekonomierna är ett samlingsnamn för snabbt växande ekonomier i Asien och länderna kännetecknas av avreglerade marknader och öppenhet mot frihandel. Studien genomförs genom en medieringsanalys och undersöker om ojämlikhet mellan könen fungerar som mediator i sambandet för hur handel påverkar fattigdom. För skattningen används paneldata för åtta länder över 30 år. Beroende variabeln fattigdom mäts som hushållskonumstion per capita, medan handelsflöde och ojämlikhet mellan könen samt fyra kontrollvariabler utgör förklarande variabler. Resultatet visar att både ökad handel och högre jämlikhet mellan könen leder till ökad hushållskonsumtion och således minskad fattigdom i tigerekonomierna. Studien visar även att ojämlikhet mellan könen fungerar som mediator för sambandet mellan handel och fattigdom, vilket innebär att handel dels leder till minskad fattigdom direkt, men även att handel leder till ökat kvinnligt deltagande på arbetsmarknaden som i sin tur minskar fattigdom. Ojämlikhet mellan könen och handel bör således studeras tillsammans för att undersöka effekten av hur de påverkar fattigdom och uteslutning av en av variablerna kan leda till felaktiga slutsatser om vad som påverkar fattigdom i tigerekonomierna.

Is Czech Spotify gender-biased? Alžběta Křížková Abstract This thesis analyses the gender inequality of music streaming platform Spotify. It focuses on Czech Spotify, ergo, on the Czech music industry between May 2020 and March 2021. The interdisciplinary study covers crucial theoretical concepts from the theory of platforms, popular music, and gender studies. It verifies whether the theory built on Anglo-Saxon tradition can be applied to the local setting. The dataset comprises of songs placed in the "TOP 200" chart and select editorial playlists. The chart illustrates song popularity based on listeners (organic listening), and chosen editorial playlists indicate the platform's promotion of songs (suggested listening). The gender gap analysis is based on a comparison of three gender ratios of songs entering the platform in total, in the playlists, and songs that make it to the chart. The empirical research utilises fundamental statistics and presents various song aspects (genre, record label, band formation, and others) in relation to artists' gender on Spotify, but also in the Czech music industry. The results show a low representation of female artists in the whole industry, while the platform actively promotes female artists via suggested listening. Organic listening endorses gender stereotypes and...

Despite advances made during the women's movement, gender inequality is a problem for women seeking leadership opportunities within the U.S. Defense Industry today. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand the perceptions of civilian females who had experienced gender inequality obstacles in their professional advancement opportunities within the U.S. Defense Industry. The mommy track framework, defined as the family/work imbalance; the gatekeeper framework; and the institutional sexism framework were used to guide this study. The research questions focused on how these women perceived both internal and external barriers to their professional advancement in the U.S. Defense Industry. A criterion sample of 18 civilian females who worked within the defense industry was interviewed. Data analysis included coding, categorizing, and analyzing themes. The resulting 5 themes were worker bee, traditional mentality/transitional workforce, education/training/network, traditional organizational culture, and fighting back. The findings also identified that gender inequality is apparent, women limit their potential growth, Queen Bees sting Wanna-Bees, and traditional organizational cultures maintain the status quo as the norm and enforce gendered stereotypes. The study leads to positive social change by raising awareness to policy-makers, educators, and women that can help set an agenda to overcome gender inequality.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(人間・環境学) / 甲第20470号 / 人博第820号 / 新制||人||196(附属図書館) / 28||人博||820(吉田南総合図書館) / 京都大学大学院人間・環境学研究科共生文明学専攻 / (主査)教授 前川 玲子, 教授 佐野 亘, 教授 小畑 史子 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Human and Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

Mozambique is a developing country specifically targeted by the impacts and consequencesthat are caused by climate change. This is due to the inconvenient geographical location interms of climate change but also due to their economical and infrastructural disadvantagewhich makes the countries populations more prone to suffer from the consequences in amanner that makes adapting and coping with the circumstances significantly difficult. At the same time Mozambique has high rates of gender inequality, which impacts women inthe country who live in poverty, in unfavourable forms in everyday life.These two topics are investigated throughout the thesis, from both a broader and closerperspective. The idea with this research is to come closer to cover the research gap that isconcerned with how women in Mozambique who are already targets of gender inequality inthe country suffer from the hard impacts of climate change and how the two issues may relateor influence each other. The research is performed as a qualitative study with the ecofeminist theoretical approach asa lens on the investigation, and the findings were obtained through the text-analysis method.The findings of the research present evidence on how climate change affects Mozambiqueand its society as well as the gender inequality circumstances women live in the samecountry. From empirical studies the findings chapter provides a perspective that helps betterexplain and understand how women's vulnerable position in society along with theirexpected responsibilities due to cultural norms sets them in a directly exposed climatechange-affected position. The research culminates with a response to the research gapsuggesting that the relation between climate change and gender inequality in Mozambiquehas an unbalanced impact on women, where the gender roles forced upon women in thecountry set a targeted situation for them by climate change resulting in a double-burdencircumstance for women.

This research examines the manifestation of gender inequality represented in female sculptures during the Classical period and the relevance of such evidence. To achieve the purpose, the female figures and their sculptural developments are compared to their male counterparts, and their differences are examined and interpreted. After that, the essay views how female figures from Greek mythology were represented unequally regarding the “female nakedness” and its manipulation. To conclude, the relevance of the evidence on the manifestation of female inferiority in Classical Greek sculpture is discussed by examining how the Graeco-Roman world is often perceived and how this perception might be improved in the future for the new evidence to become more relevant.  During the Classical period, Greek sculpture embodied the ideals and values of the patriarchal society. This resulted in female figures that were never represented equally and instead were made to embody the societies’ misogynistic view of women and their bodies. While the male statues were nude, athletic, and heroic, the female figures were fully clothed or partially exposed, made erotic and sensual, and with the female nakedness, they were depicted as vulnerable, violated, and always enslaved to their biology.  Not only is the evidence on gender manifestation relevant, but it should be acknowledged on a much larger scale. The misguided perception of the Graeco-Roman world should be corrected, and we should begin a new chapter in art history and create a new generation of non- biased perceptions. Ultimately, the female figures should be acknowledged for what they represent and not ignored.

Данная дипломная работа ставит своей целью изучение гендерного неравноправия в профессиональной сфере. / The purpose of this thesis is to study gender inequality in the professional sphere.