Orientador: Sergio dos Anjos Ferreira Pinto / Banca: Cenira Maria Lupinacci / Banca: Gilberto José Garcia / Banca: Antônio Marcos Machado de Oliveira / Banca: Ronalton Evandro Machado / Resumo: A intensificação do uso das terras torna-se cada vez mais evidente em função da crescente produção de alimentos à população humana. A aplicação de práticas inadequadas às múltiplas funcionalidades do solo tem provocado a erosão hídrica acelerada como um dos principais processos de degradação deste recurso. No esforço de colaborar em estudos de conservação dos solos, avaliaram-se os modelos preditivos de erosão hídrica MEUPS - Equação Universal de Perda de Solo Modificada (Williams, 1975) e WEPP - Water Erosion Prediction Project (Laflen, 1991) por meio da comparação das estimativas de perda de solo com dados empíricos de parcelas experimentais de pinos de erosão. A variabilidade de parâmetros envolvidos nas simulações motivou a definição de duas bacias hidrográficas de características hidrossedimentológicas distintas, as bacias do ribeirão Jacutinga (Rio Claro - SP) e do córrego do Monjolo Grande (Ipeúna - SP), para avaliar o comportamento erosivo em solos oriundos de argilitos e arenitos, respectivamente. No período experimental de junho/2013 a agosto/2014, parcelas experimentais de 1 m2 foram monitoradas em diferentes condições de declividade, posição topográfica, forma da vertente e cobertura vegetal - pastagem, cana-de-açúcar, e vegetação ripária, e em solo descoberto. Nos Argissolos e Cambissolos de textura argilosa foram registradas perdas de 0,018 a 0,066 ton/ha.ano-1, e deposição entre 0 e 0,026 ton/ha.ano-1, e nos Neossolos Quartzarênicos e Argissolos de textura arenosa, houve predomínio deposicional, entre 0,004 e 0,085 ton/ha.ano-1, e perdas de 0,002 a 0,11 ton/ha.ano-1. As maiores perdas estão associadas a maiores porções das frações de areia fina e silte, e fraca agregação pelos baixos teores de argila e matéria orgânica. O maior percentual de cobertura vegetal foi determinante para as menores perdas, evidenciando ... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The land use intensification becomes more and more evident due the growing of food production and supply to the human population. The application of inadequate practices to the multiple functions has shown the accelerated water erosion as a major degradation processes for this resource. In an effort to colaborate for soil conservation studies, this research aimed to evaluate the predictive models of erosion MUSLE - Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (Williams, 1975) and WEPP - Water Erosion Prediction Project (Laflen, 1991) by comparing the estimated soil loss and empirical data from pins experimental plots. The variability of simulated parameters led the definition of two watersheds with different hydrossedimentological characteristics, watershed of stream Jacutinga (Rio Claro - SP/Brazil) and stream Monjolo Grande (Ipeúna - SP/Brazil) to assess the erosive behavior in soils derived from mudstones and sandstones, respectively. In the experimental period of June/2013 to August/2014, experimental plots of 1 m2 were monitored in different conditions of slope, topographic position, slope shape and vegetation cover - grazing, sugarcane, riparian vegetation and bare soil. In Lixisols and Cambisols clayey the losses registered were 0.018 to 0.066 ton/ha.year-1 and deposition between 0 and 0.026 ton/ha.year-1, and in Quartzarenic Neosols and Lixisols of sandy texture, where dominated depositional process, between 0.004 and 0.085 ton/ha.year-1, and the losses were 0.002 to 0.11 ton/ha.year-1 . The greatest losses are associated with the largest portion of fine sand and silt fractions, and weak aggregation by low levels of clay and organic matter. The highest percentage of vegetation cover was crucial for smaller losses, showing greater soil protection factor for direct plantation which in conventional tillage. The simulations were performed for the experimental ... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

A área de estudo da presente pesquisa compreende a bacia hidrográfica do rio dos Sinos localizada entre as coordenadas de 50º 10 e 51º 20 de longitude oeste e entre 29º 15 e 30º 00 de latitude sul, atingindo municípios da Região Metropolitana de Porto Alegre - RMPA e da chamada Serra Gaúcha. O objetivo do trabalho foi o de estudar as terras inundáveis da área especificada a partir de parâmetros geomorfológicos contextualizando-as dentro de uma concepção sistêmica da paisagem, adotando como recorte espacial a bacia hidrográfica. Buscou-se contribuir nas questões relativas às variadas nomenclaturas, definições e no método de estudo dessas áreas. Na escala da bacia analisaram-se a litologia e a pedologia a partir de mapas já presentes na literatura. Elaborou-se mapeamento geomorfológico na escala 1:100000, perfis transversais e longitudinais e análise de dados pluviométricos que serviram como base para a definição das imagens mais apropriadas para a delimitação do limite superior aproximado das terras inundáveis. Em escala de detalhe, 1: 10000 mapearam-se os lagos naturais, bem como aqueles com origem antropogênica, foi também possível refinar o limite das terras inundáveis estudadas. Por meio da elaboração dos mapas de uso nos limites e entorno das terras inundáveis foi possível uma visão do estado atual de conservação destas áreas. A metodologia operacional compreendeu o uso de técnicas do Sistema de Informações Geográficas e do Sensoriamento Remoto. A metodologia teórica metodológica foi embasada em Ab Saber (1969) que propôs três níveis básicos de pesquisa em geomorfologia, Ross (1992) com a proposta de taxonomia do relevo e Bertalanffy (1975) a partir da Teoria Geral dos Sistemas - TGS. No que se referem aos resultados na escala da bacia temos como principais formações litológicas: derrames basálticos e depósitos sedimentares, ambos pertencentes à Morfoestrutura da Bacia Sedimentar do Paraná e depósitos cenozóicos do Terciário e do Quaternário. As morfoesculturas resultantes compreendem áreas de planaltos, planícies e depressões relativas. Os basaltos de formação mais ácida formaram planaltos tabulares, os basaltos de constituição intermediária e básica formaram morros que variam entre 150 e 750 metros de altitude aproximadamente. Nos depósitos da formação Botucatu e Rosário do Sul predominam as colinas e morros de baixa altitude. As planícies flúvio - coluvionares e fluviais estão restritas aos depósitos do Quaternário e do Terciário respectivamente. Os solos localizados nas terras inundáveis foram o chernossolo háplico órtico no trecho médio e superior da bacia e o planossolo háplico eutrófico no trecho inferior. A partir da análise dos dados pluviométricos, que compreendeu o intervalo entre 1999 e 2008, constatou-se que as imagens mais apropriadas para a delimitação do limite superior aproximado das terras inundáveis seria a de outubro de 2005, porém utilizou-se a imagem de setembro de 2005, pelo fato desta, e não da outra, estar disponível. O mês de setembro foi antecedido pelo segundo mês com maior índice pluviométrico para 2005, assim, não houve grande prejuízo na utilização desta imagem. Dos seis mapas elaborados referentes ao aspecto natural das terras inundáveis constatou-se a incidência de lagos em todas as áreas, excluindo apenas o caso do mapa do trecho um jusante onde não há sinal de divagação de canal e alta taxa de alteração dos aspectos naturais. A maioria dos lagos se formaram naturalmente a partir do estrangulamento e abandono de meandro, há também lagos de origem antropogênica. A existência ou não de lagos definiu nomenclatura mais específica das terras inundáveis como fluvias ou flúviolacustres. A partir dos mapas das principais alterações antrópicas contatou-se que no trecho médio e de montante predomina a utilização agrícola. Nas áreas do trecho dois e três de jusante há maior incidência de vegetação natural, porém, de forma insuficiente, a ocupação urbana neste trecho se apresenta na maioria das vezes de forma concentrada. Constatou-se que nas áreas mais a jusante as terras inundáveis são maiores do que nas áreas mais a montante, o que pode ser explicado, entre outros fatores, pela influência do relevo na configuração espacial destas áreas. Acredita-se que a partir dos esforços aqui realizados que tiveram por base pressupostos conceituais e aplicados da Geomorfologia, foi possível melhor compreender as terras inundáveis, para a área de estudo e de forma geral independentemente de fatores de localização ou espaciais. / The study area of this research comprises the Bells river basin located between the coordinates 50 º 10 \'and 50 º 20\' west longitude and between 29 º 15 \'and 30 º 00\' south latitude, reaching municipalities in the metropolitan area of Porto Alegre - RMPA and in the area of the called Serra Gaúcha. The aim of this work was to study the floodable lands in the specified area through geomorphological parameters, contextualizing these areas in a systemic approach of the landscape - the river basin. The methodology comprised, in a basin scale, geological and pedological analysis based on existing maps in the literature, 1:100000 scale geomorphological mapping, analysis of rainfall data that was the basis for defining the most appropriate images for the delineation of the approximate superior boundary of floodable lands. Scale of detail 1: 10000, water bodies placed in the defined areas, as well as major changes from land use, were mapped. High-resolution images were used in order to refine the floodable land boundaries, and these images served as well for paleochannels, land use and anthropogenic lakes mapping. The operational methodology included the use of techniques of Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing. The theoretical methodology was based on Ab\'Saber (1969) who proposed three basic levels of research in geomorphology, Ross (1992) with the proposed taxonomy of relief and Bertalanffy (1975) from the General Systems Theory - TGS. With regard to the results on the basin scale, we have as main lithological formations: basalt flows and sedimentary deposits, both belonging to morphostructural of Paraná Sedimentary Basin, and Tertiary and Quaternary Cenozoic deposits. The forms of relief are related to these structures, the more acidic basalts form tabular plateaus, the basalts of intermediate and basic constitution formed hills ranging between 150 and 750 altitude meters approximately, in the Botucatu and Rosário do Sul deposits predominate the hills and low altitude mountains, the fluvial-colluvial and fluvial plains are restricted to Quaternary and Tertiary deposits respectively. The soils from floodable lands form Mollisol in the middle and superior section of the basin and Haplic Eutrophic Planosol in the lower part. The driest months are January, February and March, and the wettest are October, May and June in the period between 1999 and 2008. We can find, from the six generated maps, that the incidence of lakes is higher in the lower section in the cases that have not lost their natural characteristics due to human action. Most of the lakes are formed naturally from the meander stranglehold, and there are lakes of anthropogenic origin. Differences in relation to water bodies have defined more specific classification of land as fluvial or fluvial-lacustrial. We can find, from the six generated maps concerning the natural aspects of wetlands, that there is incidence of lakes in all areas, excluding only the case of the section 1 downstream, where there isnt any case of meandering and theres high rate of anthropogenic action. Most of the lakes are formed naturally from the meander stranglehold, and there are lakes of anthropogenic origin. Differences in relation to water bodies have defined more specific classification of land as fluvial or fluvial-lacustrial. From the maps of the major anthropogenic changes it was found that in the middle and higher river sections the land is used for agriculture predominantly. In the areas corresponding to sections two and three, downstream, there is a higher incidence of natural vegetation, however its still insufficiently. The urban settlement is most often concentrated. It was found that in further downstream areas the wetlands are bigger than in the upstream areas: this phenomenom can be explained by the shape of relief in the adjacent areas and even by the study of areas beyond the boundary of floodable land. Finally, we conclude that a kind of approach, as addopted in this research (which was based on geomorphological analysis), opens up possibilities for classification and better understanding of floodable lands the phenomenon studied.

Thesis advisor: Noah P. Snyder / Substrate size and mobility are important to Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) spawning and rearing success. Channel geometry is a control on bedload mobility in streams. It is believed that channel morphology in many Maine rivers has been altered by land use practices, creating wider and shallower channels, and lowering stream competence. If correct, these changes may be partially responsible for the limited number of returning salmon currently observed in Maine coastal rivers. To evaluate the magnitude of these changes, I performed a statistical comparison of channel morphology between two Atlantic coastal streams: the Narraguagus River in Downeast Maine and the Jacquet River in northern New Brunswick, Canada. Compared to the Narraguagus River, the Jacquet River has relatively healthy returns of adult salmon. Both watersheds have similar drainage areas (Narraguagus 588 km²; Jacquet 510 km²;) and mean annual precipitation (1244 mm; 1200 mm), but differing average channel gradients (0.16%; 0.51%) and longitudinal profiles. During the summer of 2007, I surveyed a 13.6-km section of the Narraguagus with a drainage area range of 129-247 km², and a 10.4-km section of the Jacquet with a drainage area range of 94-265 km². I made measurements of active and bankfull width and depth, and channel gradient at 100-m intervals, and performed grain-size counts at 200-m intervals. I also measured gradient and width in a GIS-based analysis. Results of my analysis show that channel gradient is likely the most influential factor on Atlantic salmon habitat as it relates to sediment size. The two rivers exhibit no significant difference in width-to-depth ratio, when low-gradient outliers in the Narraguagus River are removed. Predicted median riverbed grain sizes were calculated using two methods: (1) from the empirical relationship between basal shear stress and measured grain size; and (2) using the Shields parameter and remote sensing data only. Measured and predicted grain sizes reveal finer river-bed sediments on the Narraguagus River, however, Shields parameter calculations show that sediment should be mobile in both streams. I compare these predictions to field-based habitat mapping on the Narraguagus River. Based on predicted grain sizes, I expect nearly continuous Atlantic salmon spawning (28-95%) and rearing (95-100%) habitat on the Jacquet, and much less spawning (47-62%) and rearing (57-68%) habitat on the Narraguagus. This is likely because the Narraguagus River is segmented into reaches of steeper gradient (S < 0.002) with potentially good habitat, and flatter reaches (S < 0.0005) of poor habitat. The long flat reaches (several km) likely act as sediment sinks, preventing the continuity of downstream sediment transport and causing sediment to be sourced from localized glacial deposits. / Thesis (MS) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Geology and Geophysics.

Thesis advisor: Noah P. Snyder / Emerging methods for acquiring high-resolution topographic datasets have the potential to open new opportunities for quantitative geomorphic analysis. This study demonstrates a technique for rapidly obtaining structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry-derived digital elevation models (DEMs) using aerial photographs acquired with a small unmanned aircraft system (sUAS). In conjunction with collection of aerial imagery, study sites are surveyed with a differential global position system (dGPS)-enabled total station (TPS) for georeferencing and accuracy assessment of sUAS SfM measurements. Results from sUAS SfM surveys of upland river channels in northern New England consistently produce DEMs and orthoimagery with ~1 cm pixel resolution. One-to-one point measurement comparisons demonstrate sUAS SfM systematically measures elevations about 0.16 ±0.23 m higher than TPS equivalents (0.28 m RMSE). Bathymetric (i.e. submerged or subaqueous) sUAS SfM measurements are 0.20 ±0.24 m (0.31 m RMSE) higher than TPS, whereas exposed (subaerial) points are 0.14 ±0.22 m (0.26 m RMSE) higher than TPS. Serial comparison of DEMs obtained before and after a two-year flood event indicates cut bank erosion and point bar deposition of ~0.10 m, consistent with expectations for channel evolution. DEMs acquired with the sUAS SfM are of comparable resolution but a lower cost alternative to those from airborne light detection and ranging (lidar), the current standard for topographic imagery. Furthermore, lidar is not available for much of the United States and sUAS SfM provides an efficient means for expanding coverage of this critical elevation dataset. Due to their utility in municipal, land use, and emergency planning, the demand for high-resolution topographic datasets continues to increase among governments, research institutions, and private sector consulting firms. Terrain analysis using sUAS SfM could therefore be a boon to river management and restoration in northern New England and other regions. / Thesis (MS) — Boston College, 2015. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Geology and Geophysics.

Thesis advisor: Noah Snyder / This study considers the feasibility and accuracy of using the Structure from Motion (SfM) technique to quantify changes in stream channel morphology. The SfM method utilizes common points across multiple photographs to create a three-dimensional representation of a study area. This model can then be georeferenced using ground control points. The camera locations and optics do not need to be known in this technique, making it simpler to implement in the field than traditional photogrammetry or ground-based lidar methods. Preliminary testing of this method was conducted in and around the Boston College campus during summer 2012 to determine the most appropriate tools and data collection plan for further fieldwork. I then applied the SfM method to a field site on the Souhegan River in southern New Hampshire, where I photographed two cross sections (one boulder-bedded, one sand-bedded) using a camera mounted on a 4.8 m pole. On the same day, I surveyed both cross sections using a total station with mm-scale accuracy. Inputting the photographs into the Agisoft PhotoScan software used for SfM reconstruction yielded several noteworthy results. First, when certain conditions are met, the model generated through SfM, built from a complex, high density (for example ~2,900 points per m2) point cloud, can then be used to deduce elevation data. Based on a point-by-point comparison, the SfM cross section averaged 3.6 cm (±3.4 cm standard deviation) higher than the total station survey. In other portions of the study site imaged for SfM reconstruction, a variety of difficulties prevented the development of a georeferenced three-dimensional model. These limitations, including shadowing, vegetation, camera vantage point, and location of ground control points, can be minimized in future studies to allow for better use of the SfM technique. As results of this study demonstrate, SfM reconstruction has the potential to generate accurate topographic data, which will be a powerful tool for future geomorphic studies, particularly for sites with relatively sparse vegetation and limited water. / Thesis (BS) — Boston College, 2013. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Geology & Geophysics Honors Program. / Discipline: Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences.

Thesis advisor: Noah P. Snyder / River channel morphology in northern New England depends on channel position relative to glacial geomorphology and history. This thesis considers three paraglacial Maine rivers: the West Branch of the Pleasant River (WBPR), a steep inland imposed-form tributary of the Piscataquis River, and the Narraguagus and Sheepscot rivers, two coastal low-gradient rivers. I use a simple model based on the Shields and Manning equations to predict median bed grain size in these recently deglaciated watersheds. The main objectives of this study are to: (1) understand how bedrock controls on the longitudinal profile and sediment inputs impact substrate grain size and channel morphology in the WBPR; (2) apply a model predicting substrate grain size based on digital elevation model (DEM)-derived geometric channel parameters; (3) compare the results from the high gradient WBPR to previously studied low-gradient coastal Maine rivers; and (4) explore the implications of my findings on channel and habitat restoration in paraglacial rivers. I use standard and lidar (light detection and ranging) digital elevation models (DEMs) and spatial analyses to measure channel parameters necessary to predict bed grain size and compare them to field measurements. Predicted bed grain size falls within a factor of two of the field-measured median in ~70% of the study sites. The model performs best in supply-limited alluvial single-thread channel segments with gravel-cobble lag deposit beds, and is less successful in transport-limited depositional segments with relatively fine beds and greater channel variability. Channel segments that are transitional between these two cases (intermediate channel complexity and grain size) are associated with intermediate grain size prediction accuracy. Model failures occur in segments that deviate from the single-thread gravel-bed channel type, and may indicate areas to focus restoration efforts. This study builds on previous research on low-gradient coastal rivers in Maine, and has wide application to future research or restoration projects concerned with sediment mobilization and fluvial ecology. / Thesis (MS) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Geology and Geophysics.

Interactions between fluvial processes and vegetation along the natural channel margins have been shown to be fundamental in determining meandering rivers development. By colonizing exposed sediments, riparian trees increase erosion resistance and stabilize fluvial sediment transport through their root systems, while during a flood event the above-ground biomass interacts with the water flow inducing sediment deposition and altering scour patterns. In turn river dynamics and hydrology influence vegetative biomass growth, affecting the spatial distribution of vegetation. These bio-morphological dynamics have been observed to direct control accretion and degradation rates of the meander bend. In particular, vegetation encroachments within the point bar (i.e. colonizing species and strand wood), initiate pioneeristic landforms that, when evolving, determine the lateral shifting of the margin that separates active channel from river floodplain and thus inner bank aggradation (bar push). This diminishes the portion of the morphologically active channel cross-section, influencing the erosion of the cutting bank and promoting channel widening (bank pull ). As a result of the cyclical occurrence of these erosional and depositional processes, meandering rivers floodplain show a typical ridge and swale pattern characterized by the presence of complex morphological structures, namely, benches, scrolls and chutes within the new-created floodplain. Moreover, difference in migration rate between the two banks have been observed to induce local temporal variations in channel width that affect river channel morphodynamics and its overall planform through their influence on the local flow field and channel bed morphology. Despite enormous advances in field and laboratory techniques and modelling development of the last decades, little is known about the relation between floodplain patterns and their controlling bio-morphological interactions that determine the bank accretion process. This knowledge gap has so far limited the development of physically-based models for the evolution of meandering rivers able to describe the lateral migration of banklines separately. Most existing meander migration models are indeed based on the hypothesis of constant channel width. Starting from this knowledge gap, the present doctoral research has aimed to provide more insight in the mutual interactions among flow, sediment transport and riparian vegetation dynamics in advancing banks of meandering rivers. In order to achieve its aims, the research has been designed as an integration of remote sensing and in-situ field observations with a mathematical modelling approach to i) provide a quantitative description of vegetation and floodplain channel topography patterns in advancing meanders bend and to ii) explore the key control factors and their role in generating the observed patterns. The structure of the present PhD work is based on four main elements. First, two types of airborne historical data (air photographs and Lidar survey) have been investigated, in order to quantify the effects of spatial-temporal evolution of vegetation pattern on meander morphology and to provide evidence for the influence of vegetation within the topography of the present floodplain. Such remote sensing analysis has highlighted a strong correspondence between riparian canopy structure and geomorphological patterns within the floodplain area: this has clearly shown the need to interpret the final river morphology as the result of a two-way interaction between riparian vegetation dynamics and river processes. Second, field measurements have been conducted on a dynamic meander bend of the lower reach of the Tagliamento River, Italy, with the initial aim of checking the outcomes of the remote sensing analysis through ground data. The outcomes of the field measurements have further supported the results, providing ground evidence on the relations between vegetation and topographic patterns within the transition zone that is intermediate between the active channel bed and the vegetated portion of the accreting floodplain. The influence of vegetation on inner bank morphology has also been interpreted in the light of the expected time scales of inundation and geomorphic dynamics that characterize the advancing process of the inner bank. The combined analysis of both remotely sensed data and field measurements associated with the historical hydrological dataset have allowed to quantitatively characterize the biophysical characteristics of the buffer zone, close to the river edge, where the accretion processes take place. The third research element has foreseen the development of a biophysically- based, simplified bio-morphodynamic model for the lateral migration of a meander bend that took advantage of the empirical knowledge gained in the analysis of field data. The model links a minimalist approach that includes biophysically-based relationships to describe the interaction between riparian vegetation and river hydro-morphodynamic processes, and employs a non linear mathematical model to describe the morphodynamics of meander channel bed. Model application has allowed to reproduce the spatial oscillations of vegetation biomass density and ground morphology observed in the previous analyses. Overall, the model allows to understand the role of the main controlling factors for the ground and vegetation patterns that characterize the advancing river bank and to investigate the temporal dynamics of the morphologically active channel width, providing insights into the bank pull and bar push phenomena. The fourth and concluding element of the present PhD research is an analytical investigation of the fundamental role of unsteadiness on the morphodynamic response of the river channel. Results obtained in the previous elements have clearly showed the tendency of a meander bend to develop temporal oscillations of the active channel width during its evolution, but no predictive analytical tool was previously available to investigate the channel bed response to such non-stationary planform dynamics. A non linear model has therefore been proposed to investigate the effect of active channel width unsteadiness on channel bed morphology. The basic case of free bar instability in a straight channel has been used in this first investigation, which has shown the tendency of channel widening to increase river bed instability compared to the steady case, in qualitative agreement with experimental observations. Overall, the research conducted within the present Doctoral Thesis represents a step forward in understanding the bio-morphodynamics of meandering rivers that can help the development of a complete bio-morphodynamic model for meandering rivers evolution, able to provide support for sustainable river management.

Glacier surges are amongst the most dynamic of glaciological phenomena, but their controlling mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Surging glaciers are characterised by cyclical flow instabilities and the rapid transfer of ice to the ablation area, typically resulting in significant mass loss. The High-Arctic archipelago of Svalbard is one of several regions in the northern hemisphere which contain a high-density of surge-type glaciers, variously estimated to be between 13-90% of the total glacier population across the islands. Developing a better understanding of which of these figures, if either, is most realistic is important in the context of glacier dynamics and related contributions of small glaciers and ice caps to sea level change in the immediate future. This study presents detailed assessments of the margins of several known surge-type glaciers in Svalbard in order to update and improve the existing framework by which they are identified, and to provide a foundation for future reassessments of the surge-type glacier population based on distinct ice-sediment-landform assemblages. A range of techniques is utilised, including geomorphological and structural glaciological mapping, sedimentological analysis, basal ice descriptions, and stable isotope analysis. This work provides further insight into diagnostic indicators of surge behaviour preserved in basal ice sequences; provides links between surge dynamics and basal ice sequences, the glaciological structure and the landform record; and investigates the structural and tectonic development of surge-type glaciers. Based on this, surge landsystems are proposed for: (1) small valley glaciers, (2) large land-terminating glaciers, and (3) large tidewater glaciers. It is suggested that these three landsystems, with some variability, broadly characterise the geomorphology of the vast majority of known Svalbard surge-type glaciers and, in conjunction with structural glaciological and basal ice investigations where relevant, may allow previously unknown surge-type glaciers to be identified in the field, from aerial photographs, and on sea floor imagery. This work adds to the existing repertoire of modern analogues and the breadth of surging glacier landsystems, and provides a holistic basis for assessing possible palaeo-surge behaviour within the Quaternary record.

This thesis develops and tests a classification of ‘near-natural’ European single-thread rivers, which are free to adjust to fluvial processes. The research involves subdividing rivers along a continuum of geomorphological characteristics to assign river reaches to geomorphologically-meaningful classes according to their channel dimensions and forms, and floodplain characteristics. The classification was developed and tested through three research components. First, a preliminary classification was developed using information entirely derived from a new information system containing remotely-sensed imagery and digital terrain data: Google Earth. This research stage required the development of rules for identifying, extracting and standardising information from this source for a large sample of river reaches. 221 single-thread river reaches distributed across 75 European rivers were investigated. Analysis of the derived information resulted in the development of a classification comprising six classes of European single thread river. Second, the robustness of the classification was explored including assessments of (i) the degree to which the classes were interpretable in relation to the geomorphic features they displayed; (ii) the degree to which sub-divisions of the six classes could be identified and justified; (iii) the accuracy of some specific types of information extracted from Google Earth; and (iv) the degree to which the six classes corresponded to expected gradients in two controlling variables: stream power and bed sediment calibre. Thirdly, bar theory was applied to a sample of rivers representative of the six classes. Since bars are an important contributor to river channel form and dynamics, the correspondence of the bars in the six river classes to their expected distribution as indicated by bar theory, provided further confirmation of the robustness of the classification. The outputs of the research are (i) a fully-tested classification of European single-thread rivers; and (ii) a demonstration of how Google Earth can provide valuable information for research in fluvial geomorphology. Some additional future research stages are proposed that could turn the classification into an operational tool in the context of river assessment and management.

The aeolian threshold condition is identified as defining the critical state between a static sediment bed and active aeolian transport. Disparities in reported mean threshold shear velocities (U*T) are attributed to variation in: (a) flow regimes; (b) entrainment criteria; (c) particle characteristics and exposures; and (d) techniques for measurement of 1*T The relative significance of these factors is assessed for strips and beds of ballotini, aeolian sand, salt crystals and sugar crystals using the controlled, reproducible flow conditions of the developing boundary layer over a flat plate. Such a plate was covered with a non-erosive layer of grains to simulate a flat sediment bed and was positioned in a wind tunnel. values were calculated using the momentum integral method. In a separate study, threshold conditions on impervious and permeable beds were compared directly. Analysis of entrainment from strips and beds on the plate shows that the threshold condition is principally determined by a critical degree of overlap between the probability distributions of local shear velocity, P ( U ), and of grain threshold shear velocity, P(U*T). Characteristic P(U*T) distributions for test materials were determined and two objective definitions of U*T were devised. Experimental *T values agree well with published data and are used to resolve the data scatter associated with both 'restricted' and 'universal' threshold curves. Rates of aeolian entrainment over a range of values are found to be an inverse exponential function of time and wind speed. Different erosion rates were found to result from skewness of P(U) and degree of overlap between P(U) and P(U*T). Fluid sweeps in the turbulent bursting cycle are considered to be the primary entrainment mechanism. Medium/high-speed cine film gave insight into initiation processes. Grain oscillation due to vortex shedding and initial motion characterized by a progressive rolling and bouncing were observed. Bed permeability was not found to affect aeolian threshold values.