The Upper Albian (mid-Cretaceous) sediments of the Anglo-Paris Basin display a range of condensation phenomena, including glauconitic and phosphoritic sands, glauconitic intraformational pebble beds, and mineralised nodular hardgrounds. These are interpreted as the result of sedimentation rate fluctuations controlled by small-scale relative sea-level changes of at least regional nature. The regional signal was modified by local tectonics, including occasional synsedimentary faulting and the development of thinned successions and complex condensation horizons over broad submarine highs. Candidate sequence boundaries, marine flooding surfaces and systems tracts are proposed. Episodic, high-energy storm events record a spectrum of storm intensities and periodicities in the Upper Greensand Formation. Storm processes interacted with early submarine lithification to produce a suite of pebble-shell beds, simple and amalgamated coquinas, and storm-scoured hardgrounds. Analysis of shell bed fabrics and taphonomy indicates the important role of high-energy storms in generating a distinct event stratigraphy. Stable isotope analysis has detected a positive secular change in carbon-isotopic ratios within carbonates of dispar zone age, resolved as two smaller positive shifts across nodular hardgrounds. This correlates with the development of organic-rich sediments in a range of settings world-wide. Analytical problems, including silica diagenesis, have been addressed by a series of parallel control studies. Geochemical and petrographic analysis has confirmed the widespread development of glauconitic minerals throughout the Upper Greensand, and has been used to investigate grain evolution in a range of lithologies. A review of the global development of the Cretaceous glauconitic facies has been used to compile depositional models for a range of settings. Volumetric calculations of Cretaceous glauconite production rates have shown secular changes, with peak Aptian to Santonian values linked to transgressions across the broad shelf seas which developed globally during this time of rising sea-levels and sea-level highstand.

A surface characterisation of the Arnager Greensand in south Sweden, a deep saline aquifer found to be suitable for geological storage of CO2 or energy storage, was undertaken in this thesis. Vintage seismic reflection data only available as scanned tiff images of the final stacked sections were digitized and processed using modern interpretation software to provide new insights into the morphology of the Arnager Greensand and to analyse the reservoir’s potential as an energy storage unit. The primary energy storage method discussed and evaluated was Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES). This is a modern energy storage method developed as a tool for regulating inherently intermittent renewable energy sources. Such methods are key to the growth of the renewable sector and for providing a competitive alternative to fossil fuels. Moreover, in comparison with other energy storage methods such as battery storage, CAES is known to have strong potential to deliver highperformance energy storage at large scales for relatively low costs compared with any other solution. Previous studies conducted in the 1980’s by Swedegas produced a 2D isochrone surface map of the Arnager Greensand by hand interpolation methods utilizing analogue data collected by Oljeprospektering AB (OPAB, currently Svenska Petroleum). The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) has now transferred a vast amount of the historical OPAB dataset to modern digital format. This thesis contributes to those efforts and seeks to find new interpretations from the vintage data. A more comprehensive 3D model of the top of the Arnager Greensand employing the application of modern interpretation software was produced in this study. Strong similarities between morphology and dip-trend have been observed between the surface model generated in this report and the historical Swedegas isochrone surface map. Reservoir properties such as thickness, porosity and permeability gleaned from the earlier reports show the Arnager Greensand to exhibit excellent potential as a storage unit. Preliminary effective capacity estimates by Nordic CCS Competence centre show the Aranger Greensand to be one of the top three storage aquifers in Sweden. These positive appraisals highlight the need for a better characterization of the Aranger Greensand through data digitization and modern interpretation means. This thesis contributes to that endeavour.

Nutrients for plant growth are often limited in soil systems and additions are required in the form of fertiliser. Potassium is an essential macro-nutrient for plants and demands for K are expected to increase in the future. Glaucony is an abundant marine mineral which may provide an alternative K-rich fertiliser resource. The South Island of New Zealand contains deposits of glaucony-rich rocks which were deposited in the Early- to Mid-Cenozoic during periods of low sedimentation to the seafloor. Here, the geochemistry of glaucony from the Waitaki Basin (Otago), the Waipara Greensand (North Canterbury) and the Stoney Creek Limestone (Karamea) was examined using spatially resolved geochemical analysis and dissolution experiments. Grain-by-grain analysis using Laser Ablation Induction Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrscopy (LA-ICP-MS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM + EDS) revealed that glaucony from all deposits were of the mature type and were enriched in K. Glaucony derived from growth inside faecal pellets was found to contain elevated K and Fe concentrations compared to bioclast hosted glaucony. These variations can be explained by the physical properties of host grains and sea-floor redox conditions at the time of precipitation, both of which increased ionic mobility into the zone of glauconitisation. Solubility analysis showed that K^{+} was released from glaucony more rapidly than any other element. Additionally, decreasing the pH and introducing an oxidising agent (i.e, birnessite which is ubiquitous in soil environments) accelerated K^{+} release 13-fold. Trace metals including Cr, Zn, Cu and Ni were present in the solid phase analysis, however further investigation revealed that these elements were released into solution in low concentrations and may present a source of micro-nutrients, not a soil contaminant. These results suggest that glaucony may offer a source of slow releasing K fertiliser, and the South Island of New Zealand is ideally situated as a place to consider using glaucony as a locally sourced, environmentally sustainable K resource for agriculture.

This thesis describes possibilities removal of iron and manganese from the water. The first part of the thesis describes the sources and forms of iron and manganese in water, the health limits and possibilities removal of iron and manganese from the water. Contact filtration and materials used for contact removing of iron and manganese are described in more detail. The second part describes using materials Birm, Greensand and Semidol in practise. There i also described the experimental removing of iron and manganese by these three materials.

This study evaluated alternative sulfide treatment processes for potable water systems that rely on groundwater supplies. Research for this study was conducted at the Imperial Lakes (IL) and Turner Road (TR) water treatment plants (WTPs) in Polk County, Florida. These WTPs are in the process of refurbishment and expansion, and will require the installation of a new groundwater well. The IL and TR WTPs both rely upon groundwater sources that contain total sulfide at concentrations ranging from 1.4 to 2.6 mg/L. Sulfide is a concern because if left untreated it can impact finished water quality, corrosivity, create undesirable taste and odor, and oxidize to form visible turbidity. For this reason, the raw water will require treatment per Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) "Sulfide Rule" 62-555.315(5)(a). This rule does not allow the use of conventional tray aeration (currently in use at the IL and TR WTPs) for wells that have significant total sulfide content (0.6 to 3.0 mg/L). This research was commissioned because the potential water treatment method identified in the Sulfide Rule (i.e. forced-draft aeration) would not adequately fit within the confines of the existing sites and would pose undue burden to neighboring residents. In addition, an effective sulfide treatment process was desired that offered a low profile, did not necessitate the need for additional complex chemical feed systems, minimized the extent of electrical infrastructure upgrades, and was inexpensive to construct and operate. To meet these goals, several alternative technologies were evaluated at the desktop and bench-scale; these included anion exchange, various oxidation methods, and alternative media filtration processes. From that effort, several processes were selected for evaluation at the pilot scale: bleach (NaOCl) oxidation preceding electromedia filtration; manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) filtration continuously regenerated with bleach; and ferrate (Fe(VI)) oxidation. Electromedia and MnO2 filtration were shown to be effective for total sulfide treatment. Both processes reduced total sulfide content to below detection levels ( > 0.1 mg/L) for groundwater supplies containing as much as 2.6 mg/L of total sulfide. The use of bleach oxidation ahead of media filtration also produced finished water with low turbidity ( > 1.0 NTU) as compared to conventional tray aeration and chlorination processes (6-16 NTU, as observed in this study). It was determined that the media filtration approach (electromedia and MnO2) was effective for sulfide treatment and met the County's site objectives established at the outset of the project. Ferrate was also shown to reduce total sulfide content to below detection levels ( > 0.1 mg/L) for groundwater supplies containing as much as 2.6 mg/L of total sulfide. An opinion of probable capital costs for installing a sulfide oxidation/filtration process at either the Imperial Lakes or Turner Road WTP was estimated to range from roughly $830,000 to $1,100,000. That equates to a $/kgal capital cost of $0.10 to $0.32 (at 8% for 20 years). An opinion of annual probable bleach chemical costs was estimated to range from $3,500 to $9,800 for the IL WTP and $3,500 to $5,800 for the TR WTP.