Who gets represented in America? How does representation change over time? This thesis attempts to answer both questions, which are necessarily linked to one another. I investigate long-term trends in representation and temporary fluctuations in group influence by using a probit model to examine the link between socioeconomic groups’ policy preferences and outcomes in year-groups roughly corresponding to presidential terms. I find evidence for the suggestion in the literature that American policymaking contains a strong bias in favor of the status quo, but I depart from the literature in finding little evidence for a suggested link between income and political influence. I find evidence of declining policy activity in the 1990s and 2000s relative to the 1980s but little evidence of a long-term trend towards less policy output. In general, I find little evidence of long-term trends in representation, including the idea that our policy outcomes are becoming more correlated with the views of minority groups such as African-Americans and Hispanics.

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Orientador: Alexandre Ananin / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Matemática, Estatística e Computação Científica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T08:38:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Goncalves_EduardoCarvalhoBento_M.pdf: 2390910 bytes, checksum: fac0be229bed582ba6336532e52d2cd1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Primeiramente, apresentamos uma introdução à geometria hiperbólica plana que pode ser útil, inclusive, para um principiante. A seguir, utilizando o conceito de "terremoto simples", descrevemos explicitamente, em termos de algumas coordenadas naturais, o espaço de Teichmüller T Hn de superfícies hiperelípticas. Esta descrição resulta simples: T Hn é o espaço de determinadas (2n ? 6)-uplas de pontos no bordo ideal do plano hiperbólico. Partindo da descrição em questão, diversos resultados são apresentados, incluindo: um critério simples e efetivo que permite verificar se uma dada representação de um grupo de superfície no grupo de isometrias do plano hiperbólico é fiel e discreta; uma demonstração nova e elementar de um resultado de W. Goldman caracterizando as representações fiéis e discretas como aquelas que têm invariante de Toledo maximal; uma demonstração nova e elementar de um teorema de D. Toledo referente à rigidez de representações de grupos de superfície no grupo de isometrias holomorfas do espaço hiperbólico complexo / Abstract: First, we present an introduction to plane hyperbolic geometry, which may be useful even for a beginner. Next, using the concept of "simple earthquake", we explicitly describe, in terms of some natural coordinates, the Teichmüller space T Hn of hyperelliptic surfaces. This description turns out to be simple: T Hn is the space of certain (2n ? 6)-tuples of points in the ideal boundary of the hyperbolic plane. Based on the description in question, many results are presented, including: a simple and effective criterion which allows one to verify if a given representation of a surface group in the group of isometries of the hyperbolic plane is faithful and discrete; a new and elementary proof for a result of W. Goldman, which characterizes the faithful and discrete representations as being those which have maximal Toledo invariant; a new and elementary proof for a theorem of D. Toledo, relative to the rigidity of representations of surface groups in the group of holomorphic isometries of the complex hyperbolic space. key-words: Area, discreteness, representations, plane hyperbolic geometry, Teichmüller space, complex hyperbolic geometry / Mestrado / Geometria / Mestre em Matemática

United States federal law regulating leaves of absence for maternity-related purposes pales in comparison to other nations' policies, an observation only recently receiving attention from political scientists. Providing an understanding of how maternity leave is handled by individual organizations in the United States only, a quantitative study is conducted that examines local variation in policy formulation. Employee leave due to maternity is primarily a women's issue and its treatment will vary depending on the socio-political context that the policy dictating the leave is found in. Three main determinants of a policy's level of comprehensiveness are identified as being the political representation of women on local legislative bodies, the bureaucratic representation of women in their place of employment, and the level of women's movement activity in the community. Moreover, the gendered context of the organization is considered by comparing two historically distinct institutions on the gender continuum, public education and law enforcement. After analysis involving a national comparison of public school district and police department maternity leave policies, it was found that the presence of the women's movement in a community significantly impacts the dependent variable, policy comprehensiveness. The effects of political and bureaucratic representation, however, seem to differ between police departments and school districts. In consideration of the most comprehensive policies found, it seems police departments are highly influenced by larger proportions of women officers whereas women teachers might be at a disadvantage precisely because of their over-representation in school districts. Seemingly counterintuitive, this finding suggests that gendered institutions are predicated on more than just women's presence. Evidence that maternity leave policy in individual U.S. institutions is a product of the gendered culture of the organization was found by observing the differential impact of political and social variables on police departments and school districts.

A teoria de representações de grupos topológicos Hausdorff, localmente compactos e separáveis em espaços de Hilbert separáveis é introduzida, especificada para grupos compactos e comutativos e são obtidas realizações explicitas das representações finitas irredutíveis de $SU(2)$, $SO(3)$, SL(2,C) e $SO(1,3)^{\\uparrow}$. A teoria das representações induzidas é então apresentada e, depois de feita a conexão entre teorias quântico relativísticas livres no espaço plano de Minkowski e representações unitárias irredutíveis de $R^4 times$ SL(2,C), aplicada para obter tais representações e realizar explicitamente os casos correspondentes a partículas elementares com spin definido em espaços que não admitem a definição de operadores de reflexão espacial. A inclusão da operação de reflexão espacial é feita através de uma variação do método das representações induzidas que conduz a representações unitárias {\\bf redutíveis} de $R^4 times$ SL(2,C) para as quais são obtidas equações de onda selecionando espaços irredutíveis, os quais definem partículas elementares admitindo paridade no contexto das teorias quânticas de campos livres. / The theory of locally compact, second countable and Hausdorff topological group representations in separable Hilbert spaces is introduced, and specified to compact and commutative groups. Explicit realizations of the finite irreducible representations of $SU(2)$, $SO(3)$, SL(2,C) and $SO(1,3)^{\\uparrow}$ are obtained. The theory of induced representations is then presented and, after the connection between quantum relativistic free theories in flat Minkowski space and unitary irreducible representations of $R^4 times$ SL(2,C) is made, it is applied and used to classify these representations. Explicit realizations of the cases corresponding to elementary particles with definite spin in spaces which do not allow spacial reflection operators are presented. Spacial reflections are carried with a variation of the induced representation method that leads to unitary {\\bf reducible} representations of $R^4 times$ SL(2,C). Wave equations selecting irreducible spaces that define elementary particles admitting parity in quantum free field theories are derived.

This thesis consists of two studies together with a preliminary study, focusing on the issue of ingroup representation of the &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group. The first study, addressing the problems of stereotype content, stereotype accuracy, and stereotype consensus, was based on in-depth interviewing with twenty members of the &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group. It was hypothesized that the group members, when their social identities were salient, would locate the ingroup within a chronic way of looking at the world, namely the perceived context. The accuracy of stereotypes and the stereotype consensus commonly observed among group members depended upon the efficiency of this perceived context as an explanation. Moreover, the favorability of stereotype content also derived heavily from this perceived context. The second study, based on two hundreds &uuml / lk&uuml / c&uuml / group members, examined the effects of target group (ingroup, close outgroup, distant outgroup), type of attributes (favorable, unfavorable), comparative context (intragroup, intergroup with close outgroup, intergroup with distant outgroup, multigroup), and level of identification with the ingroup (high-identifiers, low-identifiers) on the perceptions of homogeneity. A number of hypotheses were tested and the following results were found: First, group members perceived the ingroup as more positively homogeneous than both the close and the distant outgroup. Moreover, the close outgroup was perceived as more positively homogeneous than the distant outgroup. In fact, the distant outgroup was perceived as negatively homogeneous. Second, group members perceived both the ingroup and the close outgroup as more positively homogeneous in terms of unfavorable attributes than in terms of favorable ones. On the contrary, they tended to perceive the distant outgroup as more negatively homogeneous in terms of favorable attributes than in terms of unfavorable ones. Third, the above perceptions were less accentuated in the intragroup context, while they were more accentuated in the multigroup context. Fourth, the above perceptions were more accentuated for the high-identifiers than for the low-identifiers. Apart from these main effects, a number of complicated interactions were also discovered and these results were discussed with reference to the relevant literature.

Le problème de l'indice est de calculer l'indice d'un opérateur elliptique en termes topologiques. Ce problème fut résolu par M. Atiyah et I. Singer en 1963 dans "The index of elliptic operators on compact manifolds". Quelques années plus tard, ces auteurs ont fourni une nouvelle preuve dans "The index of elliptic operators I" permettant plusieurs généralisations et applications. La première est la prise en compte de l'action d'un groupe compact G, dans ce cadre on obtient une égalité dans l'anneau des représentations de G. Par la suite ils ont généralisé ce résultat au cadre des familles d'opérateurs elliptiques paramétrées par un espace compact dans "The index of elliptic operators IV", ici l'égalité vit dans la K-théorie de l'espace paramétrant la famille.Une autre généralisation importante est celle des opérateurs transversalement elliptiques par rapport à l'action d'un groupe G, c'est-à-dire elliptiques dans le sens transverse aux orbites de l'action d'un groupe sur une variété. Cette classe d'opérateurs a été étudié pour la première fois dans le cadre d'un opérateur P agissant sur une variété M par M. Atiyah (et I. Singer) dans "Elliptic operators and compact groups", en 1974. Dans cet article l'auteur définit une classe indice et montre qu'elle ne dépend que de la classe du symbole en K-théorie. Il montre ensuite qu'elle vérifie différents axiomes : action libre, multiplicativité et excision. Ces différents axiomes permettent alors de ramener le calcul de l'indice à un espace euclidien muni de l'action d'un tore. Par la suite, cette classe d'opérateurs a été étudier du point de vue de la K-théorie bivariante par P. Julg [1982] et plus récemment dans le cadre des actions propres sur une variété non compacte par G. Kasparov [2016].Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons aux familles d'opérateurs G-transversalement elliptiques. Nous définissons une classe indice en K-théorie bivariante de Kasparov. Nous vérifions qu'elle ne dépend que de la classe du symbole de la famille en K-théorie. Nous montrons que notre classe indice vérifie les propriétés d'action libre, de multiplicativité et d'excision espérées en K-théorie bivariante. Nous montrons ensuite un théorème d'induction et de compatibilité avec les applications de Gysin. Ces derniers théorèmes permettent de ramener le calcul de l'indice au cas d'une famille triviale pour l'action d'un tore comme dans le cadre d'un seul opérateur sur une variété. Nous démontrons ensuite qu'on peut associer à cette classe indice un caractère de Chern à coefficients distributionnels sur G à valeurs dans la cohomologie de de Rham de l'espace paramétrant lorsque c'est une variété. Pour ce faire, nous utilisons l'homologie locale de M. Puschnigg [2003] et une technique de M. Hilsum et G. Skandalis [1987]. Par la suite, nous nous intéressons aux formules de Berline et Vergne dans ce cadre. Avant de passer aux formules générales pour une famille d'opérateurs G-transversalment elliptiques, on commence par regarder si on obtient les mêmes formules dans le cadre elliptique. On montre alors des égalités similaires à celles obtenues par N. Berline et M. Vergne [1985] dans le cadre d'un opérateur elliptique G-invariant. Dans un dernier chapitre, on montre la formule de Berline-Vergne dans le cadre des familles d'opérateurs G-transversalement elliptiques. On utilise ici la formule de Berline-Vergne pour un opérateur G-transversalement elliptique et les différentes techniques mises en place dans les chapitres précédents. / The index problem is to calculate the index of an elliptic operator in topological terms. This problem was solved by M. Atiyah and I. Singer in 1963 in "The index of elliptic operators on compact manifolds". Few years later, these authors have given a new proof in "The index of elliptic operators I" allowing several generalizations and applications. The first is taking into account of the action of a compact group G, in this frame they obtain an equality in the ring of the representations of G. Later they generalized this result to the framework of the families of elliptic operators parameterized by a compact space in "The index of elliptic operators IV", here equality lives in the K-theory of the space of parameter.Another important generalization is the transversely elliptic operators with respect to a group action, that is to say, elliptic in the transverse direction to the orbits of a group action on a manifold. This class of operators has been studied for the first time by M. Atiyah (and I. Singer) in "Elliptic operators and compact groups", in 1974. In this article the author defines an index class and shows that it depends only on the symbol class in K-theory. Then he shows that it verifies different axioms: free action, multiplicativity and excision. These different axioms allows to reduce the calculation of the index to an Euclidean space equipped with an action of a torus. Next, this class of operators has been studied from the point of view of bivariant K-theory by P. Julg [1982] and more recently in the context of proper action on a non-compact manifolds by G. Kasparov [2016].In this thesis, we are interested in families of G-transversely elliptic operators. We define an index class in Kasparov bivariant K-theory. We verify that it depends only on the class of the symbol of the family in K-theory. We show that our index class satisfies the expected free action, multiplicativity and excision properties in bivariant K-theory. We then show a theorem of induction and compatibility with Gysin maps. These last theorems allows to reduce the calculation of the index to the case of a trivial family for the action of a torus as in the framework of a single operator on a manifold. We then prove that we can associate to this index class a Chern character with distributional coefficients on G with values ​​in the de Rham cohomology of the parameter space when it is a manifold. To do this, we use the bivariant local cyclic homology of M. Puschnigg [2003] and a technique of M. Hilsum and G. Skandalis [1987].Before treating the general framework of families of G-transversely elliptic operators, we look at the elliptic case. We show that the expected formulas are true in this context. In the last chapter, we show the Berline-Vergne formula in the context of families of G-transversely elliptic operators. We use here the Berline-Vergne formula for a G-transversely elliptic operator and the different methods used in the previous chapters.

A teoria de representações de grupos topológicos Hausdorff, localmente compactos e separáveis em espaços de Hilbert separáveis é introduzida, especificada para grupos compactos e comutativos e são obtidas realizações explicitas das representações finitas irredutíveis de $SU(2)$, $SO(3)$, SL(2,C) e $SO(1,3)^{\\uparrow}$. A teoria das representações induzidas é então apresentada e, depois de feita a conexão entre teorias quântico relativísticas livres no espaço plano de Minkowski e representações unitárias irredutíveis de $R^4 times$ SL(2,C), aplicada para obter tais representações e realizar explicitamente os casos correspondentes a partículas elementares com spin definido em espaços que não admitem a definição de operadores de reflexão espacial. A inclusão da operação de reflexão espacial é feita através de uma variação do método das representações induzidas que conduz a representações unitárias {\\bf redutíveis} de $R^4 times$ SL(2,C) para as quais são obtidas equações de onda selecionando espaços irredutíveis, os quais definem partículas elementares admitindo paridade no contexto das teorias quânticas de campos livres. / The theory of locally compact, second countable and Hausdorff topological group representations in separable Hilbert spaces is introduced, and specified to compact and commutative groups. Explicit realizations of the finite irreducible representations of $SU(2)$, $SO(3)$, SL(2,C) and $SO(1,3)^{\\uparrow}$ are obtained. The theory of induced representations is then presented and, after the connection between quantum relativistic free theories in flat Minkowski space and unitary irreducible representations of $R^4 times$ SL(2,C) is made, it is applied and used to classify these representations. Explicit realizations of the cases corresponding to elementary particles with definite spin in spaces which do not allow spacial reflection operators are presented. Spacial reflections are carried with a variation of the induced representation method that leads to unitary {\\bf reducible} representations of $R^4 times$ SL(2,C). Wave equations selecting irreducible spaces that define elementary particles admitting parity in quantum free field theories are derived.