Apresentamos os resultados de preparação e caracterização de cristais orgânicos (L-arginina fosfatada monohidratada - LAP - e L-lisina monohidroclorada dihidratada - L-Lys.HCl) que possuem propriedades ópticas lineares e não lineares desejáveis para aplicações tecnológicas, incluindo telecomunicações, computação óptica, armazenamento óptico de dados, processamento óptico da imagem, conversão de freqüência, entre outras. Desenvolvemos uma metodologia, simples e barata, para a eliminação de fungos e micróbios que surgem nas soluções destes compostos devido às características dos aminoácidos L-arginina e L-lisina. A adição do fungicida azida de sódio possibilitou-nos manter soluções destes compostos livres de quaisquer microorganismos na câmara de crescimento por um período de seis meses. Usando-se as técnicas de evaporação controlada do solvente a abaixamento da temperatura grandes cristais de LAP e L-Lys.HCl foram obtidos com qualidade óptica adequada para a confecção de dispositivos optoeletrônicos. Cristais de até 6 cm&sup3 de L-Lys.HCl foram pela primeira vez preparados e caracterizados opticamente. A caracterização estrutural permitiu-nos solucionar a divergência existente na indexação do difratograma de pó dos cristais de LAP e indexar os picos de difração de raios-X da L-lisina monohidroclorada dihidratada. / Growth and characterization of organic crystal (L-arginine phosphate monohydrate - LAP - and L-lysine monohydrochloride dihydrate L-Lys. HCl) with desirable linear and nonlinear optical properties for technological application including telecommunications, optical computing, optical data storage, optical image processing, harmonic frequency generation, and others are presented. We developed a simple and cheap method to eliminate fungi and microbes that arises in solution due to characteristics of L-arginine and L-lysine aminoacids. The addition of sodium azide fungicide maintained the solutions of these compounds free of microorganisms in the growth chamber for six months. Using a accurately controlled solvent evaporation technique and slow cooling technique large crystals of LAP and L-Lys.HCI were obtained with optical quality appropriate to the development of optoelectronic devices. L-Lys.HCl crystals up to 6 cm&sup3 were growth and optically characterized for the first time. The divergence in the powder diffraction indexation of LAP crystals was eliminated by structural characterization and the X-ray diffraction peaks of the L-lysine monohydrochloride diliydrate crystals were indexed.

En vue de la capture de réearrangements électroniques au sein d’une molécule ou au cours de réactions chimiques il est indispensable de développer un dispositif dont la résolution temporelle est attoseconde (as 1 as = 10−18 s). La voie naturelle est de rechercher des impulsions lumineuses dans cette gamme de durée. Leur fréquence centrale doit alors être dans la gamme UVX et couvrir plusieurs dizaines d’eVs. De plus, ses composantes fréquencielles doivent être synchronisées. Le processus de génération d’harmoniques d’ordre élevé (GHE) dans les gaz remplit ces exigences. Pendant ce processus, une impulsion laser de haute intensité est focalisée dans un jet de gaz, où son champ électrique courbe la barrière de potentiel d’un atome et permet l’ionisation tunnel d’un paquet d’ondes électronique (POE). Entrainé par le champ électrique du laser, le POE accélére et acquiert une énergie cinétique élevée. Dans le cas où il repasse au voisinage du coeur ionique cette énergie cinétique peut être émise sous la forme d’un photon UVX. Ces POE explorent la structure et la dynamique de l’ion dans un schéma d’auto-sonde: le POE émis à un instant donné revient lui même ultérieurement sonder l’ion. Plus précisément ce processus d’autosonde donne accès à la valeur complexe du dipôle de recombinaison moléculaire (DRM), lui-même determiné par les structures nucléaire et électronique de l’ion. Le dipôle de recombinaison, en rayonnant des harmoniques, encode ces caractéristiques dans l’amplitude, la phase et l’état de polarisation de l’émission harmonique. Grâce à la nature cohérente de la GHE nous pouvons mesurer ces trois paramètres.L’objectif de ma thèse de doctorat était double. En mettant en oeuvre des techniques avancées de caractérisation de l’amplitude, de la phase et de la polarisation des harmoniques nous avons dans un premier temps étudié la structure électronique de N2 et l’ionisation tunnel multi-canaux induite par le laser. Nous avons montré les reconstructions des plusieurs orbitals moléculaires et révélé la vibration nucléaire ultra-rapide en fonction des canaux d’ionisations. Dans un deuxième temps nous avons étudié la réflectivité et la dispersion de miroirs UVX à compensation de dérive de fréquence, fabriqués sur mesure. Ces miroirs autorisent la mise en forme temporelle d’une impulsion attoseconde, compriment la durée de l’impulsions où introduisent un TOD. Nous avons aussi proposé un nouveau façonneur d’impulsions. / To capture electronic rearrangements inside a molecule or during chemical reactions, attosecond (as, 1 as =10−18 s) time resolution is needed. To create a light pulse with this duration, the central frequency has to be in the XUV range and cover several tens of eVs. Moreover, the frequency components have to be synchronized. The so called High Harmonic Generation (HHG) in gases well suits this task. During this process a high intensity laser pulse is focused in a gas jet, where its electric field bends the potential barrier of an atom allowing an electron wave packet (EWP) to tunnel ionize. Following the electric field of the laser the EWP gets accelerated, gaining a large kinetic energy that may be released as a high energy (XUV) photon in the event of a re-collision with the ionic core. These recolliding EWP probe the structure and dynamics of the core in a self-probing scheme: the EWP, that is emitted by the molecule at a certain time, probes itself later. More precisely, this ”self-probing” scheme gives access to the complex valued recombination dipole moment (RDM) of the molecule which is determined by both the nuclear and electronic structure. The recombination encodes these characteristics into the spectral amplitude, phase and polarization state of the harmonic radiation emitted by the dipole. Due to the coherent nature of HHG it is possible to measure all these three parameters. Moreover, it is in principle possible through a tomographic procedure to reconstruct the radiating orbital.The objective of my thesis was two-fold. By implementing advanced characterization techniques of the harmonic amplitude, phase and polarization we studied i) the electronic structure of N2 and laser induced multi-channel tunnel ionization. We presented the reconstruction of molecular orbitals and revealed the ionization channel dependent ultrafast nuclear vibration. We also studied ii) the reflectivity and dispersion of recently designed chirped XUV mirrors that can shape the temporal profile of attosecond pulses. With these mirrors we could control the spectral phase over 20 eV and compensate the GDD of the harmonics or introduce a TOD. We also proposed a novel attosecond pulse shaper.

This project set out to examine the possibility that by acquiring Raman spectra and performing multi-photon imaging we can get better diagnosis and understanding of the biochemistry of an individual cancerous tumour and distinguish it from the healthy tissue. Within the frame of this study, colorectal primary and secondary cancer cells are examined with Raman spectroscopy in order to (i) study and distinguish them according to their chemical composition by applying multivariate methods and (ii) determine whether Raman spectroscopy can identify the cells which are the link between primary and secondary colorectal cancer cells, the so-called Cancer Stem Cells. The second part of this thesis is based on tissue studies. Human colorectal tissue sections are examined in a label-free manner with the use of multi-photon imaging modes (i) Two photon excitation fluorescence, (ii) stimulated Raman scattering and (iii) second harmonic generation, in order to determine whether these can provide fast and accurate diagnosis of colorectal cancer. These techniques were able to distinguish between healthy and cancerous tissue regions, based on the chemically-specific images of the tissue microenvironment and architecture. The hypothesis of Cancer stem cell is examined with the use of Raman spectroscopy shown that the CSCs have some small differences according to their tissue origin.

Neste trabalho foi estudada a geração de harmônicos perturbativos por pulsos laser ultracurtos em bicos de gás no vácuo. Os harmônicos foram gerados nas regiões espectrais do UV e VUV e sua geração ocorreu em fluxo de gases nobres. Esta técnica possibilita a produção de luz coerente numa região espectral de interesse considerável para várias aplicações, tais como a espectroscopia resolvida no tempo. Para a geração dos harmônicos foi utilizado um sistema laser amplificado de Ti:Safira que produz pulsos de 25 fs, centrados em 785 nm, a 4 kHz. Estes pulsos ultracurtos são injetados em uma câmara de vácuo, onde são focalizados em um bico de gás. Os harmônicos são selecionados por um monocromador e têm a sua intensidade medida por um cintilador e uma fotomultiplicadora. Buscamos abranger uma visão geral sobre a geração de harmônicos perturbativos em gases, com o objetivo de consolidar um conhecimento teórico e experimental no laboratório. Confeccionamos e comparamos o desempenho de dois sistemas distintos de injeção de gás, o bico metálico e o bico de vidro, que são dispositivos pouco explorados na literatura. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos com o bico de vidro. Pudemos estimar a eficiência de geração dos harmônicos do ponto de vista das propriedades microscópicas e macroscópicas de geração, e foi verificada a conversão de energia do feixe fundamental para a geração dos harmônicos, plasma e outros fenômenos não-lineares em argônio. Geramos até o 9º harmônico em argônio, atingindo a região de 85 nm. Foi estudado o casamento de fase e a dependência da eficiência de geração dos harmônicos com a pressão do gás, potência média do laser, chirp e a posição do foco para o 3º, 5° e 7º harmônicos. Com a variação dos parâmetros, observou-se que é possível sintonizar os harmônicos, e que sua geração compete com outros fenômenos, como a ionização do gás. Adicionalmente, foi observada uma queda da eficiência de geração para alta intensidades, que foi associada à depleção do 1º elétron de valência dos átomos do gás, reduzindo a quantidade de centros geradores dos harmônicos. Além do argônio, foram realizadas medidas em hélio, neônio e criptônio, visando estudar como a eficiência de geração dos harmônicos depende das propriedades eletrônicas do gás. Adicionalmente, esses resultados corroboraram a hipótese da depleção dos elétrons de valência. / In this work the generation of perturbative harmonics by ultrashort laser pulses in gas nozzles in vacuum was studied. The harmonics were generated in the UV and VUV regions and the frequency conversion occurred in flowing gas. This technique ensures the generation of coherent light in a spectral region of interest for various applications, such as ultrafast time-resolved spectroscopy. For the harmonics generation an amplified Ti:Shapphire laser system was used, generating 25 fs pulses, centered at 785 nm, at 4 kHz. These ultrashort pulses are injected into a vacuum chamber, where they are focused on a gas nozzle. The harmonics are selected by a monochromator and their intensity is measured by a scintillator and photomultiplier. We have sought to comprise an overview of the generation of perturbative harmonics in gases, in order to consolidate a theoretical and experimental knowledge in the laboratory. Two distinct gas injection systems were manufactured and had their performances compared, a metallic and a gas nozzle, devices that are poorly explored in literature. The best results were obtained with the glass nozzle. We could estimate the harmonics generation efficiency in argon from the point of view of their macroscopic and microscopic generation properties, and the energy conversion from the fundamental beam to the harmonics was verified, along with plasma creation and other nonlinear phenomena. We generated up to the 9th harmonic in argon, reaching the 85 nm. We studied the phase matching and the dependence of the harmonics generation efficiency with the gas pressure, laser average power, chirp and focus position for the 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonics. By varying the parameters, we observed that it is possible to tune the harmonics wavelengths, and that their generation competes with other nonlinear phenomena, such as the gas ionization. Additionally, a drop in the generation efficiency was observed at high intensities, which was associated to the depletion of the first valence electron in the gas atoms, decreasing the number of harmonic generating centers. In addition to argon, measurements were performed in helium, neon and krypton, aiming to study how the harmonic generation efficiency depends on the electronic properties of the gas. Additionally, these results corroborated the hypothesis of the valence electron depletion.

Neste trabalho é feito um estudo da formatação de pulsos ultracurtos de laser de Ti:Safira para a geração de segundo harmônico em cristal de KDP. Para a formatação dos pulsos, é utilizado um aparato que inclui um modulador espacial de luz de cristal líquido (LC SLM), que altera unicamente a fase espectral dos pulsos. Este aparelho tem a vantagem de não introduzir perdas durante a propagação da luz, além de sua ação ser controlada via computador, através de um software em LabVIEW. Utilizando uma função senoidal, é feito um estudo das limitações do controle da geração do segundo harmônico provindas da pixelação do LC SLM, isto é, do fato de que os elementos moduladores possuem tamanhos finitos e produzem uma modulação discreta ao longo das componentes espectrais do pulso. É apresentada a geração de luz sintonizável em torno de 400 nm por duplicação de frequências de pulsos cuja fase espectral é modulada por uma soma de funções senoidais de frequências diferentes. A largura de banda do ultravioleta produzido é da ordem de 1 nm, em contraste com a largura de linha de cerca de 12 nm do segundo harmônico gerado na ausência de modulação do pulso fundamental. A sintonização é feita basicamente através de uma varredura na fase das funções moduladoras do pulso fundamental. Esse tipo de sintonização nessa região do espectro possui algumas aplicações, tais como a microscopia seletiva por dois fótons ou mesmo a espectroscopia de um fóton. Para comprovar a utilidade da geração de segundo harmônico sintonizável, é apresentada uma medida espectroscópica da transmissão em uma amostra de cloreto de európio, sendo que os resultados obtidos concordaram com as medidas da mesma amostra realizadas em um espectrofotômetro, com o mínimo de transmissão em cerca de 394 nm. / This work presents a study on the shaping of ultrashort pulses of a Ti:Sapphire laser for second harmonic generation in KDP crystals. To achieve the pulse shaping, a setup based on a phase-only crystal-based spatial light modulator (LC SLM) is used. This device has the advantage of low loss, and can be computer controlled, by means of a LabVIEW software. The use of a sinusoidal function, allows to study the limitations of the second harmonic generation due to the pixelation of the LC SLM, i. e., due to the fact that the modulating elements have finite sizes and produce a stepwise modulation along the spectral components of the pulse. The generation of tunable light around 400 nm by frequency doubling of laser pulses is presented for the case where the spectral phase is modulated by a sum of sinusoidal functions with different frequencies. The linewidth of the ultraviolet band produced is narrower than 1 nm, in contrast to the 12 nm linewidth of the non-modulated incident spectrum. The tuning is done primarily through a sweep in the phase of the modulating functions of the fundamental pulse. The possibility of tuning in this region of the spectrum has a few applications, such as in selective two-photon microscopy or even in one photon spectroscopy. To demonstrate the usefulness of tunable second harmonic generation, a spectroscopic measurement of the transmission in a sample of europium chloride is presented, and the results agreed with the measures of those performed in a spectrophotometer, with the minimal transmission occurring around 394 nm.

The generation of high-order harmonics opened an era of attosecond science wherein coherent light bursts are used to probe dynamic processes in matter with a time resolution short enough to resolve the motions of electrons. It enabled the development of extreme ultraviolet (XUV) and X-ray table-top sources with both temporal and spatial coherence, which provides the ability to shape the temporal and spatial structure of the XUV pulses. Scientists developed techniques to control and measure the temporal structure high harmonic emissions. These techniques exploited control of the driving laser pulse in the time domain and facilitated development of more advanced high-harmonic based XUV sources that have greatly impacted ultrafast measurements. In this thesis, I apply techniques to control and measure the spatial structure of high harmonic emissions, and discuss the underlying physics and potential applications of the interaction between spatially structured laser beams and materials. This study exploits the spatial degree of freedom in strong field interaction, which has not been given as much attention as the temporal degree of freedom. I use liquid crystal devices to shape the wave front of a fundamental laser beam to a vortex structure, then imprint this structured wave front onto XUV beams through high harmonic generation. This method provides an alternative to special XUV optics, which can manipulate the wave front of XUV radiation by all optical means. This result also reveals the conservation of orbital angular momentum in this extreme nonlinear wave mixing process. In addition to shaping the wave front, shaping the polarization of the driving beam also allows generation of circularly polarized the XUV radiation using a high harmonic source. This thesis also highlights the interplay between shaping the wave front and polarization in the high harmonic generation process. The topology of the structured beam can be maintained through this extreme nonlinear interaction due to the spin selection rules and spin-orbit conservation. Moreover, this thesis demonstrates an approach to integrate a vector beam into a broadband ultrafast light source and overcome the bandwidth limitation of mode converters. We use this approach to generate a few-cycle structured beam. In the future, this beam will be used to generate a strong ultrafast magnetic impulse in gas and solid targets by driving currents in a loop, which is a valuable tool for the future of magnetic metrology. The novel properties of structured laser beams discussed in this thesis expanded the capabilities of high harmonic based XUV sources and have opened a new field to explore this additional degree of freedom in strong field interactions.

Graduation date: 1995

Graduation date: 1994

Femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (fsTRPES) experiments have been used to study the photoelectron energy spectra of simple molecules since the 1980’s. Analysis of these spectra provides information about the ultrafast internal conversion dynamics of the parent ions. However, ultraviolet pulses must be used for these pump-probe experiments in order to ionize the molecules. Since current solid state lasers, such as the Ti:sapphire laser, typically produce pulses centered at 800nm, it is necessary to generate UV pulses with nonlinear frequency mixing techniques. I therefore constructed an optical setup to generate the 3rd and 4th harmonics, at 266.7nm and 200nm, respectively, of a Ti:sapphire (Ti:sa) chirped-pulse amplified (CPA) laser system that produces 35fs pulses centered at 800nm. Thin Beta-Barium Borate (β-BaB2O4 or BBO) crystals were chosen to achieve a compromise between short pulse durations and reasonable conversion efficiencies, since ultrashort pulses are quite susceptible to broadening from group velocity dispersion (GVD). Output energies of around 11μJ and 230nJ were measured for the 266.7nm and 200nm pulses, respectively. The transform limits of the 3rd and 4th harmonic pulse lengths were calculated from their measured spectral widths. We found that the 266.7nm bandwidth was large enough to support sub-30fs pulses, and due to cutting at the lower-wavelength end of the 200nm spectrum, we calculated an upper limit of 38fs. The pulses were compressed with pairs of CaF2 prisms to compensate for dispersion introduced by transmissive optics. Two-photon absorption (TPA) intensity autocorrelations revealed fully compressed pulse lengths of 36 ± 2 fs and 42 ± 4 fs for the 3rd and 4th harmonics, respectively.

Femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (fsTRPES) experiments have been used to study the photoelectron energy spectra of simple molecules since the 1980’s. Analysis of these spectra provides information about the ultrafast internal conversion dynamics of the parent ions. However, ultraviolet pulses must be used for these pump-probe experiments in order to ionize the molecules. Since current solid state lasers, such as the Ti:sapphire laser, typically produce pulses centered at 800nm, it is necessary to generate UV pulses with nonlinear frequency mixing techniques. I therefore constructed an optical setup to generate the 3rd and 4th harmonics, at 266.7nm and 200nm, respectively, of a Ti:sapphire (Ti:sa) chirped-pulse amplified (CPA) laser system that produces 35fs pulses centered at 800nm. Thin Beta-Barium Borate (β-BaB2O4 or BBO) crystals were chosen to achieve a compromise between short pulse durations and reasonable conversion efficiencies, since ultrashort pulses are quite susceptible to broadening from group velocity dispersion (GVD). Output energies of around 11μJ and 230nJ were measured for the 266.7nm and 200nm pulses, respectively. The transform limits of the 3rd and 4th harmonic pulse lengths were calculated from their measured spectral widths. We found that the 266.7nm bandwidth was large enough to support sub-30fs pulses, and due to cutting at the lower-wavelength end of the 200nm spectrum, we calculated an upper limit of 38fs. The pulses were compressed with pairs of CaF2 prisms to compensate for dispersion introduced by transmissive optics. Two-photon absorption (TPA) intensity autocorrelations revealed fully compressed pulse lengths of 36 ± 2 fs and 42 ± 4 fs for the 3rd and 4th harmonics, respectively.