Realizou-se neste trabalho uma investigação comparativa do comportamento dos aços ferramenta H13 e THYROTHERM 2999 EFS SUPRA, destinados à fabricação de matrizes para conformação a quente, quando submetidos à fadiga de baixo ciclo a altas temperaturas (FBCAT). A partir de suas curvas de revenimento, foram definidas três durezas de trabalho para cada material (durezas de 42, 52 e 58 HRC), correspondendo a três temperaturas de revenimento distintas e três condições de estudo, buscando-se a condição ótima apresentada por estes materiais para este tipo de aplicação, visando-se então analisar a influência da dureza inicial do material na vida do componente. Foi determinada também a temperatura de ensaio de fadiga isotérmica, em 400°C, correspondente à temperatura de utilização da matriz, ou seja, uma temperatura crítica típica que a matriz atinge durante a solicitação em trabalho. A seguir foram realizados para cada material os ensaios de tração a temperatura ambiente, e na seqüência, os ensaios de tração na temperatura de trabalho definida, que permitiram a determinação dos primeiros parâmetros monotônicos dos materiais, dentre eles uma previsão para os níveis de deformação a serem utilizados nos ensaios de fadiga (0.5,0.6,0.7,0.8,0.9,1.0 e 1.1%), e demais parâmetros como E, k, n, σe, σ’f, ε’f, b, c, que permitiram a elaboração de curvas ε−N, com um modelo estimativo já existente. Finalmente, foram então realizados os ensaios de fadiga isotérmica de baixo ciclo, à temperatura de 400°C, e os resultados foram utilizados para a elaboração das curvas ε−N, resultando então na proposta de um modelo de previsão de resistência à fadiga específico para os materiais pesquisados. / It was made in this work an investigative comparison of the behavior of the tool steels H13 and THYROTHERM 2999 EFS SUPRA, designed for die steels for hot forming, when exposed to high temperature low cycle fatigue (HTLCF). From their tempering curves three material working hardness were defined for each material (hardness of 42, 52 and 58 HRC), corresponding to three different tempering temperatures, and so three study cases for each material, searching for the best condition for this kind of application, and to assess the influence of the initial hardness on the part material life. The isothermal low cycle fatigue test temperature was either defined at 400°C, corresponding to the used temperature at the die steel, i.e., a critical typical temperature that the forging dies reach on hot working. After that, tensile tests were performed for both materials, at room temperature, and at the working temperature formerly defined, and these tests allowed the definition of the first monotonic parameters for these materials, among them predictions for strain levels (0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.1%), to be used on fatigue tests, and further parameters like E, k, n, σe, σ’f, ε’f, b, c, that allowed the elaboration of ε−N curves, based on a still existing prediction model. Finally, isothermal low cycle fatigue tests were performed, at 400°C, and the results were used for ε−N curves elaboration, resulting on a prediction model of the fatigue strength specified for the assessed materials.

Emission regulations for heavy-duty diesel engines are becoming increasingly restrictive to limit the environmental impacts of exhaust gases and particles. Increasing the specific power output of diesel engines would improve fuel efficiency and greatly reduce emissions, but these changes could lead to increased exhaust gas temperature, increasing demands on the exhaust manifold material. This is currently the ferritic ductile cast iron alloy SiMo51, containing about 4 wt% Si and ~1 wt% Mo, which operates close to its fatigue and oxidation resistance limits at peak temperature (750C). To ensure high durability at higher temperatures, three different approaches to improving the life of exhaust manifolds were developed in this thesis. The first approach was to modify SiMo51 by adding different combinations of Cr and Ni to improve its high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance, or by applying a thermal barrier coating (TBC) to reduce the material temperature and thereby improve fatigue life. In the second approach, new materials for engine components, e.g. austenitic ductile iron and cast stainless steel, were investigated for their high-temperature fatigue and oxidation properties. In order to identify the most suitable alloys for this application, in the third the environmental effects of the corrosive diesel exhaust gas on the fatigue life of SiMo51 were investigated. The high-temperature oxidation resistance of SiMo51 at 700 and 800C in air was found to be improved by adding Cr, whereas Ni showed adverse effects. The effects of solid-solution hardening from Ni and precipitation hardening from Cr were low at 700C, with improvements only at lower temperatures. Applying a TBC system, providing thermal protection from a ceramic topcoat and oxidation protection from a metallic bond coat, resulted in only small reductions in material temperature, but according to finite element calculations still effectively improved the fatigue life of a turbo manifold. Possible alternative materials to SiMo51 identified were austenitic cast ductile iron Ni-resistant D5S and austenitic cast stainless steel HK30, which provided high durability of exhaust manifolds up to 800 and 900C, respectively. Corrosion fatigue testing of SiMo51 at 700C in diesel exhaust gas demonstrated that the corrosive gas reduced fatigue life by 30-50% compared with air and by 60-75% compared with an inert environment. The reduced fatigue life was associated with a mechanism whereby the crack tip oxidized, followed by crack growth. Thus another potential benefit of TBC systems is that the bond coat may reduce oxidation interactions and further improve fatigue life. These results can be used for selecting materials for exhaust applications. They also reveal many new research questions for future studies. Combining the different approaches of alloy modification, new material testing and improving the performance using coatings widened the scope of how component life in exhaust manifolds can be improved. Moreover, the findings on environmental interactions on SiMo51 fatigue provide a completely new understanding of these processes in ductile irons, important knowledge when designing components exposed to corrosive environments. The novel facility developed for high-temperature corrosion fatigue testing can be useful to other researchers working in this field. / <p>QC 20150507</p>

Realizou-se neste trabalho uma investigação comparativa do comportamento dos aços ferramenta H13 e THYROTHERM 2999 EFS SUPRA, destinados à fabricação de matrizes para conformação a quente, quando submetidos à fadiga de baixo ciclo a altas temperaturas (FBCAT). A partir de suas curvas de revenimento, foram definidas três durezas de trabalho para cada material (durezas de 42, 52 e 58 HRC), correspondendo a três temperaturas de revenimento distintas e três condições de estudo, buscando-se a condição ótima apresentada por estes materiais para este tipo de aplicação, visando-se então analisar a influência da dureza inicial do material na vida do componente. Foi determinada também a temperatura de ensaio de fadiga isotérmica, em 400&#176;C, correspondente à temperatura de utilização da matriz, ou seja, uma temperatura crítica típica que a matriz atinge durante a solicitação em trabalho. A seguir foram realizados para cada material os ensaios de tração a temperatura ambiente, e na seqüência, os ensaios de tração na temperatura de trabalho definida, que permitiram a determinação dos primeiros parâmetros monotônicos dos materiais, dentre eles uma previsão para os níveis de deformação a serem utilizados nos ensaios de fadiga (0.5,0.6,0.7,0.8,0.9,1.0 e 1.1%), e demais parâmetros como E, k, n, &#963;e, &#963;&#8217;f, &#949;&#8217;f, b, c, que permitiram a elaboração de curvas &#949;&#8722;N, com um modelo estimativo já existente. Finalmente, foram então realizados os ensaios de fadiga isotérmica de baixo ciclo, à temperatura de 400&#176;C, e os resultados foram utilizados para a elaboração das curvas &#949;&#8722;N, resultando então na proposta de um modelo de previsão de resistência à fadiga específico para os materiais pesquisados. / It was made in this work an investigative comparison of the behavior of the tool steels H13 and THYROTHERM 2999 EFS SUPRA, designed for die steels for hot forming, when exposed to high temperature low cycle fatigue (HTLCF). From their tempering curves three material working hardness were defined for each material (hardness of 42, 52 and 58 HRC), corresponding to three different tempering temperatures, and so three study cases for each material, searching for the best condition for this kind of application, and to assess the influence of the initial hardness on the part material life. The isothermal low cycle fatigue test temperature was either defined at 400&#176;C, corresponding to the used temperature at the die steel, i.e., a critical typical temperature that the forging dies reach on hot working. After that, tensile tests were performed for both materials, at room temperature, and at the working temperature formerly defined, and these tests allowed the definition of the first monotonic parameters for these materials, among them predictions for strain levels (0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 and 1.1%), to be used on fatigue tests, and further parameters like E, k, n, &#963;e, &#963;&#8217;f, &#949;&#8217;f, b, c, that allowed the elaboration of &#949;&#8722;N curves, based on a still existing prediction model. Finally, isothermal low cycle fatigue tests were performed, at 400&#176;C, and the results were used for &#949;&#8722;N curves elaboration, resulting on a prediction model of the fatigue strength specified for the assessed materials.

Due to coming emission legislations, the temperature is expected to increase in heavy-duty diesel engines, specifically in the hot-end of the exhaust system affecting components, such as exhaust- and turbo manifolds. Since the current material in the turbo manifold, a ductile cast iron named SiMo51, is operating close to its limits there is a need for material development in order to maintain a high durability of these components. When designing for increased life, many material properties need to be considered, for example, creep-, corrosion- and fatigue resistance. Among these, the present work focuses on the latter two up to 800°C improving the current material by additions of Cr, for corrosion resistance, and Ni, for mechanical properties. The results show improved high-temperature corrosion resistance in air from 0.5 and 1wt% Cr additions resulting in improved barrier layer at the oxide/metal interface. However, during oxidation in exhaust-gases, which is a much more demanding environment compared to air, such improvement could not be observed. Addition of 1wt% Ni was found to increase the fatigue life up to 250°C, resulting from solution strengthening of the ferritic matrix. However, Ni was also found to increase the oxidation rates, as no continuous SiO2-barrier layers were formed in the presence of Ni. Since none of the tested alloys showed improved material properties in exhaust gases at high temperature, it is suggested that the way of improving performance of exhaust manifolds is to move towards austenitic ductile cast irons or cast stainless steels. One alloy showing good high-temperature oxidation properties in exhaust atmospheres is an austenitic cast stainless steel named HK30. This alloy formed adherent oxide scales during oxidation at 900°C in gas mixtures of 5%O2-10%H2O-85%N2 and 5%CO2-10%H2O-85%N2 and in air. In the two latter atmospheres, compact scales of (Cr, Mn)-spinel and Cr2O3 were formed whereas in the atmosphere containing 5%O2 and 10%H2O, the scales were more porous due to increased Fe-oxide formation. Despite the formation of a protective, i.e. compact and adherent, oxide scale on HK30, exposure to exhaust-gas condensate showed a detrimental effect in form of oxide spallation and metal release. Thus, proving the importance of taking exhaust-gas condensation, which may occur during cold-start or upon cooling of the engine, into account when selecting a new material for exhaust manifolds. / <p>QC 20130508</p>