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<p>Along with pilgrimage rituals vrata-s (a form of religious vow) are one of the major forms of religious observance in popular Hinduism. Details of how these vows should be practised, who may observe them and the merit that they confer are described in many of the Pura~as (compendia of Hindu religious lore, ritual practices, philosophy, myth, geneologies and so forth written in Sanskrit between c. 400 and 1400 A.D.).</p> <p>In this thesis my aim has been to provide an explicit picture of the nature and function of these vrata-s within the Purānic context. In the first section I have traced the meaning of the term 'vrata' from its earliest usage in the Rgveda to its usage in the Puranas where it became identified with a religious observance involving fasting, pūjā (worship), and dāna (the giving of gifts) directed to a deity in return for religious merit, a favour (e.g., sons), or as a form of expiation. In the next section of the thesis a selection of vrata-s from four Puranas have been described. These vrata-s are then analyzed according to nine categories, including deity to whom the vrata is to be directed, ritual requirements of the vratee, and the purpose for which the vrata is to be undertaken.</p> <p>In the process of researching this thesis certain prevalent ideas about the Purānic vrata-s found in secondary literature, such as the idea that these vrata-s are mainly directed to women or that low as well as high caste Hindus had equal privelege to observe them, were found to be misconceptions. A reason for the existence of these misconceptions is the tendency on the part of some writers to confuse sastric vrata-s (those sanctioned in the sacred texts) with popular or 'Folk' (laukika) vrata-s (those given less treatment or none at all in the texts).</p> <p>This thesis has also addressed the controversy over whether vrata-s represent a popularization of Vedic religion or a 'Brahmanization' of popular religious practice. It was determined that the texts themselves do not provide conclusive evidence for either position. Rather, all one can say is that the vrata-s incorporate elements of both Vedic or 'Brahmanic' and non-Vedic thought and practices and that this kind of fusion is itself a characteristic of the Puran.a literature.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

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Thesis advisor: Catherine Cornille / The Christian ecological tradition rejects problematic dualisms that separate and hierarchically value the body and soul, humans and creation, man and woman, etc. Ecofeminist theology seeks to provide alternatives that better recognize the interconnectedness of life overall, yet it has not fully responded to the dualism of life and death. This is evident in the work of Ivone Gebara, a leading ecofeminist theologian who addresses life, death, and resurrection within a more immanent understanding of the Trinity. Though she argues for a more ambiguous understanding of good and evil, creation and destruction, life and death, the tensions between these categories are never fully resolved. This is where the Hindu tradition, and in particular the Kali tradition of Hinduism, may shed new light on the Christian understanding of death as part of creation and of its interconnection with all life. The goddess Kali in particular is often referred to as the mistress of death, or death itself, and as such she does not protect her devotees from the inevitability of life, suffering, and death. Instead, Kali reveals the mortality of all life and frees devotees to embody their own fate and accept their own death as she grants them liberation from samsara (the continuous cycle of dying and rebirth into the world of materiality). Gebara advocates against hierarchical dualisms of good and evil, creation and destruction, life and death, where Kali already embodies the tension of these polarities, even the transcendence of them altogether. Even though there are fundamental differences between Hindu and Christian worldviews and conceptions of the divine, the figure of Kali addresses traditional tensions between life and death and between creation and salvation, and thus inspires a more integral liberation for all creation. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Theology.

This dissertation explores whether women and men can be empowered through cultural nationalism based on religious/ethnic identities. Religious fundamentalism is typically not associated with women's empowerment. As a patriarchal, Hindu nationalist party that advocates violence, the Shiv Sena is also an unlikely agent of women's empowerment. Yet, the Sena has been attracting numerous women who claim to have gained confidence through the party. Using the Shiv Sena as my case study, I interviewed four male and seven female Shiv Sena members using the biographic narrative method. By examining their biographic narratives and interviews of their families and colleagues, I was able to delineate the different empowerment cycles for men and women in Shiv Sena and determine each participant's level of empowerment. The empowerment framework defined by Jo Rowlands (1997), which distinguishes between personal, collective, and relational empowerment, serves as the basis of my assessment of women's and men's empowerment. As violence is generally disregarded as a means of empowerment, I discuss it in relation to the construction of empowering cultural identities. While establishing theoretical frameworks regarding empowerment, cultural identity and gender, I also examine the disempowerment of Maharashtrians (whom Shiv Sena originally represented) by the socio-economic and historical conditions of Bombay, India. I then demonstrate how Shiv Sena, led by its Chief, Bal Thackeray, has constructed a new hegemonic masculine identity for Maharasthrian men as a means of empowerment. In the final chapters, I examine Shiv Sena's impact on the lives of individual women and men. This analysis revealed that despite the patriarchal constraints imposed by the Sena, women were becoming personally empowered in both the private and public spheres. In contrast, while Shiv Sena men were achieving collective empowerment in the public sphere, they had more difficulty becoming personally empowered in both the home and workplace.

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This dissertation is accompanied by a video recording of the performance of the yajna and an audio recording of the mantras (sacred verses) recited during the performance. This thesis endeavors to illustrate how oral style elements are used to accentuate the mantras during the performance of the yajna. The mantras and the yajna itself, have its roots in the Vedic scriptures which have been transmitted orally from generation to generation. In chapter one, "Introduction", a brief description of the concept of Hinduism which forms the basis of my investigation is presented. An individual's life, according to Hinduism, is divided into four stages and the performance of yajna features prominently in the sixteen Vedic sanskaras. In chapter two, the term yajna is defined and the origin of yajna as reflected in the Purusa Sukta is discussed. The five main daily duties or Panca Mahayajna, presented for the welfare and progress of the individual and society are explained. It must be noted that the Panca Mahayajna are not necessarily all rituals or rites but rather social or human commitments, which are a part of the Vedic code of ethics. However, the Deva Yajna or Agni-hotra or yajna as it is very commonly known to Hindus, is a ritual that is performed. The Devayajna forms an integral part of the Panca Mahayajna. The third chapter outlines some of Marcel Jousse's thoughts, views and ideas about oral style expressions relevant to the yajna. The universal anthropological laws of Formulism, Bilateralism, Mimism and Rhythmism as propounded by Marcel Jousse are highlighted. Key concepts like gesture, memory, rhythm and oral expression, used as facilitators for the transmission of knowledge are explained. this chapter forms part of the conceptional framework of the study. Chapter four focusses on the definition of oral tradition The Vedas, an example of Hindu literature reflecting oral tradition, are discussed. Some interesting comments tracing the authenticity of the Vedas and facts declaring the Vedas as the source head of all knowledge about human behaviour also feature in this chapter. In the fifth chapter, the procedure, explanation and analysis of the gestural and oral expressions as reflected in the performance of the yajna are examined. The anthropological laws of Marcel Jousse are applied in the recitation of the mantras and the actual performance of the yajna. Mnemotechnical devices that facilitate memorisation, featuring in the mantras are discussed. The conclusion emphasises the role of oral style elements that are evident in the yajna and explores the possibility for further research in Vedic literature. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban,1999.

This study seeks to explore the relationship between religious ritual and theatre through an examination of the manner in which the Hindu religion functions. In the Introduction to this thesis, the nature of both religious rituals and theatre, and the similarities that exist between ' these forms of performance, are explored. At the heart of any performance is the desire to communicate. Religious rituals are primarily a means of communicating the philosophy of a particular religion. In this thesis, the basic beliefs and philosophy of the Hindu religion are described; the imagery, symbols and mythology, that have evolved with the religion, are analysed as extensions of the basic philosophy of the religion; and the manner in which these symbols and images function in Hindu religious practices is examined. This is followed by a detailed documentation of two Hindu rituals. The first, the Havan is a home based ritual, while the second, the Fire-Walking Festival, is temple based. The historical evolution of these rituals, based on essentially scriptural evidence, is also examined. An overview of the impact of the Hindu religion on Indian theatre concludes this dissertation. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1991.

This research was stimulated by pastoral concerns pertaining to the South African Hindu Community. It was found that the community had a noticeable number of individuals stagnant or stranded at the level of gross spirituality. On the other hand it is known that the primary texts of Hinduism and its long mystical traditions, from the Vedic Period to the Neo-Vedanta Movement, had adequate motivational and goal-orientated material to address this challenge. This work surveys the Vedic and Upanishadic texts in order to show the literary, social and philosophical conditions under which they were produced. Hindu mysticism emerges from all these strands of development. Gross mysticism in the form of elaborate rituals occupies the attention of the early Vedic seers. This graduates into subtle subjective mysticism in the Upanishads. At each phase there is a paradigm shift which this study interprets in the light of Shankara (medieval period) and Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, Aurobindo and Radhakrishnan of the Neo-Vedanta Movement. In the early Vedic period the soul is a metaphysical entity. Upon death it is judged in accordance with its good or bad actions. Heavenly rewards or the punishment of hell are meted out to it. Heaven and hell are final eschatological goals for the soul in the Vedic period. In the Upanishadic period heaven and hell are temporary eschatological goals. The ultimate Upanishadic goal is Liberation which implies the mystical cessation of empirical existence and the realization of Unitary Consciousness. The Taittiriya Upanishad defines the soul analytically as a formulation of five sheaths : body, vital energy, mind, intellect and bliss with an immortal consciousness as its divine focus. These sheaths are fundamental to Hindu sacred psychology. Functioning under the effects of ignorance each sheath binds the soul to mundane existence. However, each sheath also possesses an intrinsic capacity to liberate the soul from suffering. This research explores the limitations and opportunities of each sheath and indicates the path by which the soul's divine potential may be realized. In the light of the Neo-Vedantic outlook this process is considered with a life-affirming attitude which is of relevance to South African Hindus. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D.Lit et Phil. (Religious Studies)