No description available.

No description available.

A consensus on how to characterise the anterograde and retrograde memory processes that are lost or spared after hippocampal damage has not been reached. In this thesis, I critically re-examine the empirical literature and the assumptions behind current theories. I formulate a coherent view of what makes a task hippocampally dependent at acquisition and how this relates to its long-term fate. Findings from a neural net simulation indicate the plausibility of my proposals. My proposals both extend and constrain current views on the role of the hippocampus in the rapid acquisition of information and in learning complex associations. In general, tasks are most likely to require the hippocampus for acquisition if they involve rapid, associative learning about unfamiliar, complex, low salience stimuli. However, none of these factors alone is sufficient to obligatorily implicate the hippocampus in acquisition. With the exception of associations with supra-modal information that are always dependent on the hippocampus, it is the combination of factors that is important. Detailed, complex information that is obligatorily hippocampally-dependent at acquisition remains so for its lifetime. However, all memories are semanticised as they age through the loss of detailed context-specific information and because generic cortically-represented information starts to dominate recall. Initially hippocampally dependent memories may appear to become independent of the hippocampus over time, but recall changes qualitatively. Multi-stage, lifelong post-acquisition memory processes produce semanticised re-representations of memories of differing specificity and complexity, that can serve different purposes. The model simulates hippocampal and cortical interactions in the acquisition and maintenance of episodic and semantic events, and behaves in accordance with my proposals. In particular, conceptualising episodic and semantic memory as representing points on a continuum of memory types appears viable. Support is also found for proposals on the relative importance of the hippocampus and cortex in the rapid acquisition of information and the acquisition of complex multi-model information; and the effect of existing knowledge on new learning. Furthermore, episodic and semantic events become differentially dependent on cortical and hippocampal components. Finally, as a memory ages, it is automatically semanticised and becomes cortically dependent.

This thesis aims to examine the role of the hippocampus in declarative memory through the development of animal behavioural models of episodic memory for laboratory rats. Episodic memory- memory for unique events or episodes- is part of the declarative memory system thought to be mediated by the medial temporal lobe area of the brain in humans. One commonly used test of episodic memory in human subjects is paired associate learning. The first part of this thesis describes the adaptation of this human test for use with laboratory rats. Using their natural foraging tendency, rats were trained to search for different flavours of food at different locations within a large enclosure. When cued with a piece of food of a particular flavour in a separate box, rats learned to return to the place where that flavour of food had previously been found. This paradigm was used to investigate the role of the hippocampus in paired-associate learning using temporary pharmacological inactivation and permanent neurotoxic lesion techniques. The hippocampus has also been strongly implicated in spatial navigation, learning and memory in rats and humans. In the experiments described previously, attempts were therefore made to demonstrate that the results were not confounded by a simple deficit in spatial navigation. An alternative approach to studying episodic memory in the laboratory rat is to use the criteria established by Tulving in 1972 to describe episodic memory. He stated that episodic memory should encompass the memory for an event and the spatiotemporal context in which it occurred, i.e. the ”what”, ”where” and ”when” of an event. He later updated these criteria to include demonstration of autonoetic consciousness- most easily described as a sense of self awareness. Since this is difficult or impossible to demonstrate in animals, the term ”episodic-like” memory was coined (Clayton & Dickinson 1998) to describe the flexible use of information about the spatiotemporal aspects of an event by non-human species. Since it has been difficult to demonstrate the use of time (when) in rats (Bird et al; 2003, Babb & Crystal 2006a), Eacott & Norman (2004) suggested that the ”when” component could be replaced by context; i.e. another element specific to a particular event that they labelled ”which”. The next part of this thesis describes the use of the task published by Eacott & Norman to test episodic-like memory in the laboratory rat. Using the innate spontaneous behaviour of rats to explore novel aspects of their environment, they were exposed to multiple unique events. These consisted of various three-dimensional objects being presented in different locations within different contexts. Their memory for manipulations of the environment was then tested by presenting them with an event in which one combination of object, location and context was different from combinations which had previously been encountered. Due to their tendency to explore novel aspects of their environment, normal rats spent the majority of their time exploring the object that was in a novel location relative to the context in which it was presented. This successfully demonstrated integrated memory for what, where and which- similar to that previously defined by Tulving. The rats also showed that they could use this information flexibly because every trial involved unique combinations of objects, locations and contexts so there was no inadvertent semantic rule-learning involved. Permanent neurotoxic lesions of the hippocampus were used to determine the extent to which this structure is involved in memory for the what, where and which of an event. The experimental results presented in this thesis demonstrate an indisputable role for the hippocampus in a variety of tasks designed to parallel episodic memory in humans. The next steps in this line of research should involve characterisation of the roles of the various subregions of the hippocampus in episodic-like and paired associate memory.

The hippocampus contains more than 21 types of inhibitory interneurons that express different proteins and innervate different sub-domains of pyramidal cells to regulate the spatiotemporal integration of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and to define temporal windows for spiking. Neurogliaform cells (NGFCs), form synapses on the distal tufts of pyramidal cell apical dendrites alongside excitatory inputs from the entorhinal cortex. NGFCs express neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), are often synaptically coupled, and fire rhythmically during theta oscillations in vivo. In this thesis, I describe a novel form of synaptic communication between these interneuron types, hereafter referred to as the firing induced suppression of inhibition (FSI). Specifically, I found that when a theta-associated activity patterns were evoked in NGFCs from rodent hippocampal slices, the cells exhibited a transient reduction in unitary IPSP amplitude. My data suggest that FSI requires the backpropagation of action potentials, calcium influx through L-type calcium channels, nNOS activity within the dendrites of interneurons, and the activation of NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase (NOsGC) receptors that are present on presynaptic terminals. My results also demonstrate the physiological impact of this phenomenon by showing that when FSI occurs, the strength of incoming excitatory postsynaptic potentials onto NGFCs are transiently sharpened. Specifically, FSI indirectly increased the amplitude of EPSPs. Thus FSI may enhance spatial and temporal summation of excitatory inputs to NGFCs and regulate their inhibition of pyramidal cells.

Das Phänomen der adulten Neurogenese existiert auch bei Säugetieren während der gesamten Ontogenese. In den letzten Jahren wurden viele physiologische und pathologische Faktoren bestimmt, die einen Einfluss auf die adulte Neurogenese haben. Ein bedeutender Einfluss auf die adulte Neurogenese übt dabei der 5-HT-Spiegel aus. 5-HT reguliert nicht nur während der embryonalen Entwicklung die Zellproliferation, Migration und Differenzierung, sondern ist auch ein wichtiger Faktor bei der adulten Neurogenese. Dabei wirkt 5-HT über den 5-HT1A-Rezeptor positiv auf die Stammzellproliferation und die adulte Neurogenese. Durch eine Therapie mit Antidepressiva kommt es ebenfalls zu einer 5-HT-Erhöhung im Extrazellularraum, dessen anregende Wirkung auf die Proliferation adulter Stammzellen im Gehirn nachgewiesen werden konnte. Darüber hinaus spielt 5-HT auch eine große Rolle bei neurophysiologischen Vorgängen im ZNS, die im Zusammenhang mit Emotionen, Lernen und Motorik stehen. Eine wichtige Grundlage der Depressionsforschung ist die Monoamin-Mangel-Hypothese, welche niedrige 5-HT-Spiegel als Ursache der Depression ansieht. In dieser Arbeit sollte der Einfluss eines existenten lebenslang erhöhten extrazellulären 5-HT-Spiegel auf die Neurogenese und vor allem auf die Differenzierungsrichtung neu gebildeter Zellen untersucht werden. Als Modell wurde eine transgene Mauslinie verwendet, bei der durch Knockout des 5-HTT ein permanent erhöhter extrazellulärer 5-HT-Spiegel vorliegt. Die Stammzellproliferation konnte eindeutig durch eine Markierung sich teilender Zellen mit BrdU nachgewiesen werden. Kolokalisationsstudien mit Hilfe von Immunofluoreszenzfärbungen und der anschließenden Darstellung mit dem Konfokalen Lasermikroskop konnten die Neubildung von Neuronen und Gliazellen und deren Migration an ihren funktionellen Ort darstellen. Es konnte kein signifikanter Unterschied in der Anzahl von im Hippocampus neu gebildeten Neuronen und Astrozyten zwischen Wildtyp- und 5-HTT-KO-Mäusen nachgewiesen werden. Auch die Lokalisation der neu entstandenen und 48 Tage nach BrdU-Applikation nachgewiesenen Zellen war bei den Wildtyp- und 5-HTT-KO-Tieren annähernd gleich. Die überwiegende Zahl mit 70% befand sich in der SGZ, 10 - 15% waren in der KZS lokalisiert und ein kleiner Teil befand sich im Hilus. Wir sind erst am Anfang des Verständnisses der exakten molekularen Mechanismen in der neuroendokrinen Interaktion zwischen Neuronen und deren Transmitter, vor allem dem an zentraler Stelle stehenden 5-HT. Neue Techniken, die nicht nur die morphologische, sondern auch die funktionelle Darstellung der neuronalen und neurophysiologische Tätigkeit liefern, werden in Zukunft neue Erkenntnisse bringen. / Serotonin (5-HT) is a regulator of morphogenetic activities during early brain development and neurogenesis, including cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, and synaptogenesis. The 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) mediates high-affinity reuptake of 5-HT into presynaptic terminals and thereby fine-tunes serotonergic neurotransmission. Inactivation of the 5-HTT gene in mice reduces 5-HT clearance resulting in persistently increased concentrations of synaptic 5-HT. In the present study the effects of elevated 5-HT levels on adult neurogenesis and the differentiation of the newborn cells in the hippocampus of 5-HTT deficient mice was investigated. Using an in vivo approach with BrDU and immunofluorescent technics and using a confocal laser microscope, we did not reveal significant changes in the survival of newborn cells in wildtype or 5-HTT knockout mice. We showed that the cellular fate of newly generated cells in 5-HTT knockout mice is not different with respect to the total number and percentage of neurons or glial cells from wildtype controls. Our findings indicate that elevated synaptic 5-HT concentration throughout early development and later life of 5-HTT deficient mice does not induce adult neurogenesis or change the cellular fate in adult mice.

Der Prozess der adulten Neurogenese wird durch eine Vielzahl von Faktoren beein-flusst. Zu diesen zählt auch der Neurotransmitter und Second Messenger Stickstoffmonoxid (NO). Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, explizit den Einfluss des von der neuronalen NO-Synthase (nNOS) gebildeten NO-Moleküls auf die Teilprozesse des Überlebens und der Migration neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des Gyrus dentatus (DG) adulter Mäuse zu untersuchen. Um ausschließlich den Einfluss von nNOS untersuchen zu können, wurden die Experimente der vorliegenden Arbeit mit einem genetischen Modell der nNOS-defizienten Maus durchgeführt. Die Untersuchung des Überlebens und der Migration neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG der unterschiedlichen nNOS-Genotypen fand anhand des immunhistochemischen Nachweises des Thymidin-Analogons 5-Brom-2'-desoxyuridin (BrdU) sowie der quantitativen Analyse der BrdU-positiven Zellen statt. Um eine Aussage zum Überleben (sog. Survival) und zur Migration treffen zu können, wurde das Gewebe der Versuchstiere erst vier Wochen nach den erfolgten BrdU-Injektionen entnommen. Die Survivaluntersuchung zeigte eine im Vergleich zu den Kontrollen hochsignifikant erhöhte Anzahl bzw. Konzentration überlebender neu gebildeter Zellen in der Subgranulärzone (SGZ) und Körnerzellschicht (KZS) des DG der nNOS-Knockout(KO)-Mäuse. Die Migrationsuntersuchung ergab einen signifikant erhöhten Anteil der nach vier Wochen in die KZS eingewanderten neu gebildeten Zellen in den nNOS-KO-Mäusen. Das von nNOS gebildete NO scheint somit einen hemmenden Einfluss auf das Überleben und die Migration neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG adulter Mäuse zu besitzen. Um zu untersuchen, auf welche Weise das von Neuronen gebildete NO-Molekül die Teilprozesse des Überlebens und der Migration hemmen könnte, wurde zunächst die räumliche Nähe zwischen neuronalen Stamm- bzw. Vorläuferzellen und nNOS-positiven Zellen mit Hilfe von Kolokalisationsstudien mit fluorochrommarkierten Antikörpern gegen die Antigene BrdU und nNOS untersucht. Dazu wurden Mäuse verwendet, denen zum Nachweis der Proliferation adulter Stamm- bzw. Vorläuferzellen erst kurz vor der Gewebeentnahme BrdU injiziert worden war. Da die im Bereich des DG nur in geringer Anzahl vorliegenden nNOS-positiven Zellen relativ weit entfernt von den BrdU-positiven Zellen detektiert wurden, erscheint ein direkter Einfluss des von Neuronen gebildeten NO-Moleküls auf die neuronalen Stamm- bzw. Vorläuferzellen unwahrscheinlich. Um zu erforschen, ob der hemmende Einfluss von nNOS durch neurotoxische Eigen-schaften des NO-Moleküls bedingt ist, fand die Fluoro-Jade B(F-J B)-Färbung zum Nachweis degenerierender Neurone statt. Im Rahmen dieser Untersuchung zeigte sich kein signifikanter Unterschied hinsichtlich der Anzahl degenerierender Neurone im Bereich des DG der nNOS-KO- und nNOS-Wildtyp-Tiere. Die hemmende Wirkung des von Neuronen gebildeten NO-Moleküls auf das Überleben und die Migration muss folglich auf einen anderen Mechanismus als auf den der Neurotoxizität zurückzuführen sein. Das Ergebnis der F-J B-Färbung ist jedoch angesichts des hochsignifikant erhöhten Überlebens neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG der nNOS-KO-Mäuse bei vergleichbarem KZS-Volumen der verschiedenen nNOS-Genotypen durchaus kritisch zu bewerten und sollte durch andere Nachweise der Zelldegeneration überprüft werden. Der hemmende Einfluss von nNOS auf das Überleben neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG adulter Mäuse wurde schließlich auf dem Hintergrund der vielfach beschriebenen antiproliferativen und einer die Differenzierung fördernden Wirkung des NO-Moleküls interpretiert. So scheint das von nNOS gebildete NO den Prozess des Überlebens dadurch zu hemmen, dass es als antiproliferatives Agens den Übergang der neuronalen Vorläuferzellen aus dem Stadium der Proliferation in das der Differenzierung induziert. Diese Hypothese ließe sich durch entsprechende Kolokalisationsstudien zur Differenzierungsrichtung neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG adulter Mäuse erhärten. Zur Klärung der Zusammenhänge zwischen NO und Migration bedarf es erst noch grundlegender Untersuchungen zum physiologischen Ablauf der Migration neu gebildeter Zellen im Bereich des DG. / The process of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus is divided into several distinct steps: stem cell proliferation, survival of the newly formed neural cells, their migration from the subgranular zone to the granular cell layer and their differentiation to functional neurons. The adult neurogenesis is regulated by different factors; nitric oxide has also been shown to be involved in the regulation of this process. In the present dissertation it has been investigated by BrdU-immunohistochemistry whether the survival and migration of newly formed neurons is altered in mice lacking neuronal nitric oxide synthase(NOS-I) with the result that both survival and migration were significantly higher in NOS-I deficient mice. To examine whether NOS-I positive cells in the dentate gyrus are located in the vicinity to dividing neural cells and thus are spatially capable to influence adult neurogenesis, immunhistochemical double-labeling for NOS-I and BrdU was performed. The staining revealed that NOS-I is highly expressed in cell bodies and processes of cells in the striatum, all parts of the cortex, several parts of the hypothalamus and the mammilary nucleus. In comparison, there are only few neurons expressing NOS-I in the dentate gyrus and the CA1-3 regions of the hippocampus. NOS-I positive neurons in the dentate gyrus do not co-express the proliferation marker BrdU and are located distantly (approximately 45µM) to the new-born cells. Direct influence of NOS-I on the Brdu-incorporating cells in the dentate gyrus seems therefore unlikely. NOS-I rather appears to indirectly impede the survival of the new-born cells, probably by switching these young neural cells from survival to differentiation.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of; Masters of Science in Medicine (Anatomical Sciences) School of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. 2017. / This research studied adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus of the Long-Evans rat. Eighteen male Long-Evans rats were exposed to complex enriched environment, the running wheel environment for exercise as single influencing factor and the standard laboratory environment for 28 days. Thereafter the rats were transcardially perfused with 0.9 normal saline followed by 4% paraformaldehyde. The brains were removed and frozen sagittal sections cut at 50 μm. Brain sections were stained with Cresyl violet for cytoarchitecture. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence techniques were employed for the immature neurons with defined processes using the marker doublecortin (DCX), neuronal proliferation marker Ki-67, the synapse marker, synaptophysin and the dendritic spine marker, synaptobrevin. Giemsa staining was used to identify pyknotic neurons followed by counts for DCX, Ki-67, pyknotic positive cells, and volume density of the dentate gyrus. Results indicated a statistically significant increase in brain weight (p=0.5) for the complex enriched group when compared to the running group and control. The typical cytoarchitecture of the hippocampus in rodents was observed with more densely packed granule cell layer in the dorsal limb of the dentate gyrus compared to the ventral limb especially in the enriched group. The Ki-67 immunopositive cell number between groups showed a variable difference with a three-fold increase each between the standard control and exercise, and between the exercise and enriched but a six-fold increase between the standard control and the complex enriched groups. Comparing the DCX immunopositive results, we observed also that the neuronal numbers, structure, dendritic patterns as well as the neuronal arrangement on the dorsal and ventral limbs of the dentate gyrus varied significantly among groups. The apoptotic cell numberusing pyknotic cells, showed the standard control group to have the highest number of cells compared to the exercise versus the enriched group; noting a five-fold difference between the standard control and exercise, a twenty seven-fold difference between the standard control versus enriched and a twenty one-fold difference between 6 the exercise and complex enriched group. The volumetric analysis showed a 15-fold difference between the standard control and exercise groups, a five-fold difference between the exercise and complex enriched and a nineteen-fold difference between the standard control and complex enriched groups. However, no statistical significant difference was found in the volumetric analysis of the dentate gyrus between the groups. / MT2017

Historically, there have been two lines of research on mammalian hippocampus. The first one is concerned with the role of hippocampus in formations of new memories and owes its origin to the seminal study by Brenda Milner and William Scoville of a single memory disorder patient, widely known as H.M. The second line of research views the hippocampus as the brain area concerned with orienting and navigating in space. It started with John O’Keefe’s discovery of place cells, pyramidal neurons in the CA3 area of hippocampus, that fire when the animal enters a particular place in its environment. I argue that both lines of discoveries seem to be consistent with a more general view of hippocampus as a brain area strongly involved in the integration of sensory, and possibly internal, information. The first part of the thesis presents an investigation of the effect of limited connectivity constraint on the model network in the framework of pattern classification. It is shown that feed-forward neural classifiers with numerous long range connections can be replaced by networks with sparse feed-forward connectivity and local recurrent connectivity without sacrificing the classification performance. The limited connectivity constraint is relevant for most biological networks, and especially for the hippocampus. The second part describes a decoding analysis from the calcium signal recorded in mouse dentate gyrus. The animal’s position can be decoded with approximately 10cm accuracy and the neural representation of position in the dentate gyrus have close to maximal dimensionality. The analysis also suggests that cells with single firing field and cells with multiple firing fields contribute approximately equal amount of information to the decoder.

The hippocampus is traditionally thought to transmit contextual information to limbic structures where it acquires valence. Using freely moving calcium imaging and optogenetics, we show that while the dorsal CA1 subregion of the hippocampus is enriched in place cells, ventral CA1 (vCA1) is enriched in anxiety cells that are both activated by anxiogenic environments and required for avoidance behavior. Imaging cells defined by their projection target revealed that anxiety cells were enriched in the vCA1 population projecting to the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), but not to the basal amygdala (BA). Consistent with this selectivity, optogenetic activation of vCA1 terminals in LHA, but not BA increased anxiety and avoidance, while activation of terminals in BA, but not LHA impaired contextual fear memory. Thus, the hippocampus encodes not only neutral but also valence-related contextual information, and the vCA1-LHA pathway is a direct route by which the hippocampus can influence innate anxiety behavior.