This dissertation contains three essays analyzing how families form and how family members interact. The first chapter studies and connects recent trends in age at marriage and divorce. The second chapter looks within marriages to analyze household bargaining. The final chapter examines the effects on cohort characteristics of the changes in fertility induced by the legalization of abortion. In my first essay, I explore the extent to which the rise in age at marriage can explain the rapid decrease in divorce rates for cohorts marrying from 1980 to 2004. Three different empirical approaches all demonstrate that an increase in women’s age at marriage can explain at least 60 percent of the decline in the hazard of divorce since 1980. I further develop and simulate an integrated model of the marriage market to demonstrate that monotone decreases in gains to marriage could lead to both the initial rise in divorce and its subsequent fall. My second essays analyzes the impact of the early 1990s state waivers from welfare guidelines to understand how changes in options outside of marriage affect household expenditures. Welfare waivers decreased the public assistance available to impoverished divorced women and thereby reduced a woman’s bargaining threat point in marriage. Using expenditure data and an empirical synthetic control approach, I find that decreases in potential welfare benefits altered the expenditure patterns of two-parent families containing less-educated or stay-at-home mothers. The changes in expenditure patterns suggest that reductions in a wife’s outside options cause her utility within marriage to decline. My third essay examines how cohorts whose mothers had legal and safe access to abortion differ from those whose mothers did not. Using both birth certificate and wage data, I demonstrate that granting women access to abortion led to changes in child characteristics, even among groups of children born within months or weeks of each other. Analysis further suggests that soon after legalization, women used abortion to better-time their births. Moreover, access to abortion increased the eventual wages of low-wage, black, and Hispanic workers but not the wages of whites or high-wage workers. / Economics

Within the academic discussion, water is argued to be a ‘multifaceted resource’, yet, the social and cultural dimensions of water have received little attention. Furthermore, authors have highlighted a need to explore the phenomenon from both, the macro and micro level, however, debates regarding water tend to revolve around the former. Following the need for a more local perspective, this study looks into water practices of a household, like using a watering can to irrigate crops or purifying water for consumption, as well as the environment in which these occur. Recognising that change is essential for development, it also explores if improvement of these practices is needed, and how development of these, if so, may be encouraged. One perspective fostering such an understanding is Symbolic Interactionism, focusing on individuals and their behaviour and how this is influenced by their perceived reality and the interaction with oneself and others. This perspective is utilised as the analytical framework in order to explore people’s lives and their experiences. The research was carried out as a field work during April and May, 2013, in Ribáuè, Mozambique. This study concludes that there is a recognised need to develop water practices in order to support and create favourable outcomes for households. One of the factors that this study highlights as important is to acknowledge individuals’ cognitive process in relation to the visible actions performed, emphasising the significance of taking both processes into account when attempting to encourage the development of water practices. For instance, it is advisable to provide not only theoretical instructions, but also to demonstrate and let the individuals carry out new practices. By taking such factors into account, this may strengthen the efforts to encourage a household to develop its water practices. This study also proposes potential perspectives for future research.

As durables are essential in many households, the level of ownership is high and, due to the high degree of penetration, a vast proportion of the current sales are replacement purchases. Even though a lot of research attention has been paid to decision making and decision processes many models are oriented towards non-durable goods and although a majority of purchases of many durable goods are replacements, few studies seem to make a distinction between a replacement purchase decision and a decision to buy an item for the first time. The purpose of this thesis has been to increase the understanding of the consumer decision process in replacement purchase. More specifically, the research focus has been on the cognitive mechanisms behind the formation of a replacement decision and on factors affecting the timing of a replacement purchase of durable goods. Choosing to study the timing of replacement decisions reflects the emphasis on the ongoing process, not merely on what is happening at a certain moment. Many studies in the consumer behaviour research are cross-sectional and by using cross-sectional data, there is a risk of identifying cohort effects rather then identifying effects stemming from the individual process over time. This thesis' focus on the process is reflected in and emphasised by the choice of method, both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study have been undertaken. In order to address the research question, a theoretical framework and model were developed. The model is based on the traditional idea that many actual purchase decisions are realised through the approach of problem solving, entailing problem identification, information search, evaluation of alternatives, choice, and action. The underlying assumption of the model is that purchase expectations are related to a comparison between an aspiration level, defined in accordance with Simon's (1956) satisficing principle, and an evaluation of the currently owned product (current level). Purchase expectations are believed to be the result of a cognitive process encompassing the comparison between aspiration level and current level. When the discrepancy between aspiration level and current level goes beyond a noticeable difference, a purchase expectation is assumed to be formed and the purchase process initiated. The results from this studyreveal that the cognitive mechanism behind a replacement decision can be explained in accordance with the proposed model: Consumers compare the currently owned product with requirements of product for the same usage and if the current product falls below the requirements, replacement plans are formed. The timing of the replacement is therefore argued to depend both on factors effecting the requirements of a product for the same usage (the aspiration level), and on factors affecting the perception of the current product (the current level). Moreover, the study indicates that problem identification initiated through a change either in aspiration level or in current level might evoke different decision strategies and consequently, the problem identification stage might be more important for marketing strategies than previously assumed. The results aslo highlight the importance of considering the consumers present stage in the decision process for achieving an efficient segmentation for market communication as product attributes important early in the process might not be important later in the process. / <p>Diss. Umeå : Univ.</p> / digitalisering@umu

This thesis investigated certain dimensions of inequality in Greece that have not or have only partially been explored so far, utilising the micro-data of a survey carried out in 1988 by the National Centre for Social Research. Reviewed were relevant studies conducted in the past, and evaluated were the available statistical data and information. Certain theoretical and methodological issues that one encounters when analysing and measuring inequality were also discussed. Initially, an analysis by income source was employed, which provided valuable information on the structure and profile of income inequality in Greece. The decomposition analysis by income components showed that entrepreneurial income is the most significant contributor to overall inequality in Greece, despite the fact that it represents a relatively small fraction of household income. Income taxes and social security contribution appeared to have a very weak distributional impact on overall inequality. This impact was explored further by employing regression analysis. It was found that the share of income tax and contributions is mainly related to wages and salaries. The most effective way to maximise their distributional impact is by eliminating tax evasion among the recipients of entrepreneurial income. The average household income was found to be greatly affected by certain population characteristics, and inequality appeared to vary substantially between population subgroups. The decomposition analysis showed that in all the population groups used, inequality between groups accounted for only a very small segment of the overall inequality. Finally, the hypothesis that, in Greece, the family background is a significant factor in determining the offspring's socio-economic status was tested. A loglinear analysis was used in order to uncover all the potentially complex relationship among the variables employed. These results suggested that people face unequal opportunities for education and unequal probabilities of falling below the poverty line due to their family background.

The purpose of this study was to describe a) the status of the household sewage systems in the municipality of Nordmaling, b) to suggest areas in which a higher level of protection would be required and c) to investigate which type of technological choice was appropriate for which type of soil. A survey was used to investigate the status of the household sewage systems. The status was judged mainly on the age and treatment of water. Protected areas, the ecological status and data for phosphorus and nitrogen were used to locate areas in need of a higher protection. Map data from the Geological Survey of Sweden was used to identify common soil types in Nordmaling. Subsequently, the map was complemented and verified with a field investigation. In a next step, characteristics of the soil types were compared to the requirements of four different sewage treatment technologies; infiltration, constructed infiltration, incinerator toilets and household sewage plants. The study shows that the household sewage systems in Nordmaling are in general not in a good condition. Almost 70 % of the sewage systems are older than 20 years and their function is likely not sufficient. The study suggests that the following areas should be included in the list of objects with high protection: Lögde- and Öre river, Kronören, Järnäs peninsula, waters with an ecological status below “good” and the protected water resources. Except for infiltration, all sewage treatment technologies were assumed to give appropriate results for all soil types.

Questions have been are raised about the applicability (context specificity) and appropriateness (cultural relevance) of existing frameworks and the indicators used to measure and monitor food security in communities located throughout Canada’s circumpolar region. Developed primarily for use in more urban areas located to the south and with non-Aboriginal populations such frameworks have arguably failed to take into account the unique food perspectives and practices of the Inuit, First Nation and Métis peoples who live in the north. A call for both improved food security concepts and measures that are relevant to and capture the local characteristics of northern communities and its people are required. Taking a post modern ethnographic approach the purpose of the current study was to develop a holistic understanding of food security in Stony Rapids, a remote predominantly Aboriginal community in Saskatchewan’s far north. Immersed in day to day life for a period of three months an ethnographic record of household food security was produced through participant observation (P-O) activities, interviews and photographs. These activities occurred both within the community and within three households that agreed to participate in the study. Analysis occurred in two phases. The first phase was informal, occurred throughout the duration of the field work, and involved reading and rereading field notes and sharing of observations and insights with household participants and key informants. The second phase of analysis began after leaving the field and data collection had ended. In a formal process, thematic analysis grounded in the data was used to reduce, make sense, and derive meaning from the field notes and interviews. Emerging from the analysis, findings suggested that food moves into and within northern households via three dominant pathways that originate from the sources of food that are available to and accessed by households in Stony Rapids. The movement of food vis-à-vis these three dominant pathways was found to be dependent on a constellation of regional and/or community level factors as well as structural factors that were unique to each household. These factors taken together not only influence the capacity of households to access food but also influence how food is utilised within the home. This study produced a novel way of understanding northern food security that has relevance for the measures that may be developed to capture this issue and thereby inform appropriate and effective intervention strategies.

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Rates of population growth in developing country cities are straining the capacity of sanitation service providers. In spite of widespread sector recognition of the need to adopt low-cost, people centred approaches, 80 per cent of investments in the water and sanitation sector continue to be allocated to high cost technologies for urban elites. Household level, on-plot sanitation systems potentially offer a solution to the sanitary needs of the urban poor. Nevertheless, commonly held assumptions amongst sector professionals that lower cost, on-plot systems are inappropriate and unacceptable in urban communities impede-their wider application. There is little empirical evidence to justify this position. The scope of this work examines the technical appropriateness and user acceptability of on-plot sanitation options. The thesis contributes to an improved understanding of the context in which on-plot systems operate, what factors constrain their application, and what issues need consideration when deciding on sanitary options in low-income communities. The research adopted a mix of methodological techniques to improve the reliability and validity of findings, with both quantitative and qualitative methods applied during fieldwork. Findings from Ghana, Mozambique and India are included in the thesis in order to permit sampling of key latrine types used internationally. The thesis concludes that user based perceptions of the performance and acceptability of on-plot systems varies markedly to those of sector professionals, particularly in relation to plot size, satisfaction levels and reasons for absence of household latrine. Furthermore, user based criteria of performance are developed for consideration practitioners when narrowing decision making on sanitary options. The implications of the study highlight the need for integration of user concerns into strategic planning for sanitation, more effective stimulation and negotiation of demand for sanitation systems and challenges for agencies in adopting a user oriented approach. The recommendations from the thesis include practitioner focused policy changes that affect project planning and support systems for user education. Potential areas of further research interest include ranking user perceptions, an holistic understanding of excreta management processes and institutional constraints affecting user-service provider consultations.

This thesis focuses on Chinese immigrant women’s experiences of household work and leisure in Canada. Socialist feminist perspective is used for an analysis of in-depth conversations with ten Chinese immigrant women with children. Results show that Chinese immigrant women experienced a significant increase of household work and a dramatic decrease on leisure pursuits after immigration and/or the birth of their children, implying that gender inequalities are reproduced and reinforced. Chinese immigrant women encounter and negotiate forms of tension resulted from the striking difference of being in China and being in Canada, their change in social status and their changed gender status. This thesis may contribute background knowledge for the practitioners in recreational programs and social works specialized in immigrant settlement services. Future research could be the motives for immigration, the actual experiences of immigration; a comparative study between Chinese immigrant women and women of other ethnicities is also suggested.

The thesis considers two pertinent questions about poverty in Fiji. One is about the accuracy of the poverty measures calculated by the concerned organisations and this relates to the use of equivalence scales and the general style of analysis. The other more intricate question is the disregard for poverty due to intra-family distribution asymmetries. Such miscalculations of poverty arise due use of average household per capita expenditure to represent consumption. This research attempts to answer the question of whether the tendency to underestimate the incidence of poverty by disregarding intra-family inequality is significant. Furthermore, it attempts to determine the causes of these inequalities. The issue is whether the classical method of data analysis (using the family as a unit) is the ideal way of analysing poverty and distribution in societies where large family structures exist and government relief remains minimal. To determine the household inequalities, household expenditures have been disaggregated into individualised expenditures. The individualised consumption expenditure is analysed and compared with the outcomes of aggregate household expenditure data. The analysis provides overwhelming evidence for underestimation of poverty when household consumption expenditures are used.