It is known that the presence of information related to, but not necessary for the completion of a speeded experimental task can affect performance. Previous studies involving such 'contextual' effects with information in verbal and nonverbal form have produced mixed results which have been attributed to differing underlying processing mechanisms. The present work examines the extent to which some possible mechanisms could, in common, account for within- and crossmodality contextual effects. 'Priming' information relating to typographic case was presented over time intervals varying up to 480 msec before, and up to 480 msec after, a target to which a speeded category-decision was indicated by a left- or right-hand key-press. Within-attribute' case-priming was effected using a letter string printed either in upper- or lower-case (e.g., `dghej', or 'YFLRB') paired with a similar target for case-decision. Within-attribute name-priming upon name-decision was similarly achieved using the case-denoting words `upper' and 'lower'. 'Cross-attribute' priming was possible through name information priming case-decisions (e.g., `upper-YFLRB'), or, case information priming name-decisions (e.g., 'YFLRB-upper'). The combined effects of case- and name-priming upon case-decision were also investigated using case-denoting words printed in either one or other of the two typographic cases (e.g., `upper-yflrb', or `UPPER-yflrb'). Relatively short decision latencies accompanied by relatively low error rates occurred when targets were preceded by congruent within-attribute primes. Incongruent priming led to slower responses with higher error rates. Similar effects were obtained with name-priming of case-decisions although, in comparison to within-attribute priming, these occurred after longer prime pre-exposures. Case-priming effects upon name-decisions were obtained for simultaneous as well as pre-exposed primes, however, congruent as well as incongruent case-priming led to relatively slow decision latencies and higher error rates. Combined congruent case and name information speeded case-decisions in comparison to congruent case information alone. However the converse did not occur; increase in case-decision latency with incongruent case and name information combined was no greater than with incongruent case information alone. It has been argued that the results are consistent with models which propose that input is initially subject to encoding where 'activation' may spread automatically among interconnected verbal or nonverbal representations. In particular, this could partly account for speeded responses obtained with congruent primes. Relatively shorter decision latencies can also be attributed to subsequent decision processes and the generation of responses. The results also suggest that relatively longer latencies could arise from competing incompatible responses having to be suppressed. It has been further argued that relative speed of processing different stimulus attributes and the form of experimental task can be major determinants in the detection of contextual effects.

Video Interactive Guidance (VIG) is a goal focused, relationship based intervention, using video feedback, together with guidance from the practitioner, to support the client to reach their relational goals. VIG can be accessed by a range of individuals who are seeking support to improve their relationships, such as teachers, teaching assistants, parents, foster carers and adoptive parents. This study focuses on VIG as used with parents. VIG is an intervention which is growing in reputation as an effective method in promoting secure relationships between parents and children (Fukkink, 2008; NICE Guidance, 2012). Educational Psychologists are among a range of professionals who are now widely using VIG to promote positive relationships for parents and their children within the community context. In view of the agenda in Health, Social Care and Education to employ evidence based practice (Swinkels, 2002; Frederickson, 2002; Slavin, 2008, Axford, 2012), there is a clear need to explore the effectiveness of VIG when used with parents. This research adopted a case study design with parents who have engaged with a VIG intervention. The study utilizes qualitative methodologies across two phases of semi structured interview and video elicitation interviews to explore the perceived impact of VIG for parents and to explain the underlying mechanisms of how VIG brings about change for parents. The findings suggest that VIG is effective in facilitating a range of perceived outcomes for parents, including more attuned relationships and increased attachment with their child and personal development through increased levels of self-reflection and positivity. In addition, the findings offer evidence to support mediated learning theory and cognitive dissonance theory, specifically relating to video self-confrontation as underlying theoretical mechanisms to explain how VIG facilitates change for parents during the shared review.

Imaginary companions (ICs) are a relatively common feature of childhood, yet the views of parents regarding their children's creation of and engagement with ICs are relatively unexplored. This study explored the attitudes of parents towards ICs and the factors that relate to variation in views. This study is comprised of two phases. Phase 1 examined the views of mothers and fathers of primary school aged children using a self-completion questionnaire. 228 mothers and 31 fathers participated. Of these 259 parents, 63 had a child with a current or previous IC and 196 had a child without an IC. Phase 2 further examined the views of 12 mothers who had all experienced the phenomenon with their children, using semi-structured interviews. Results indicated that in general, parents held mainly positive or neutral views of ICs. They perceived there to be both advantages and disadvantages for their child, they had some concerns, and would be most inclined to ignore the behaviour. Context was found to also relate to the views of parents, and they would be more inclined to join in with the pretence in private than in public. Experience of ICs was associated with the views of parents, and parents with experience of ICs consistently reported more positive views for all attitudes measured. Child age was also found to impact on the views of parents, who were all less accepting of their children's ICs with increasing child age. It was hypothesised that parents' views may therefore play a part in older children keeping their ICs a secret from others. Furthermore, religious affiliation was also found to result in some variation in parent views. Mothers interviewed all expressed positive views of their children's IC, identifying a number of developmental benefits afforded to the child and identifying their experience to have been positive, thus positively shaping their views of ICs. Their positive views were however found to be conditional upon a number of factors, including the age of the child, the IC being used appropriately, and there being no negative social impact. Whilst the mothers had few concerns for young children with ICs, their concern was found to grow with increasing child age and the prospect of the IC not disappearing after middle childhood. The implications of the study for educational psychology, education and childcare professionals are discussed.

The thesis presents empirical studies and reviews that support a shift from traditional classroom practices in the Primary school to those based in a teacher-child partnership developed through negotiation. The opening Chapter looks at the ontology of the contemporary classroom of the Primary school. It holds that reasons for the presence of largely directive practices can be found in teachers background and training and in society's dependent model of childhood. This focus is continued in Chapter Two in respect to research into motivational processes. Chapter Three presents two empirical studies looking at the nature of the directive classroom and the types of strategies that children use to cope with this phenomena. In Chapter Four negotiation is examined across a variety of domains, developing in Chapter Five a model of a negotiating classroom and examining the extent to which it can be said that children negotiate. Chapter Six presents three studies concerned with children's negotiating behaviour, the detailed nature of child-teacher classroom negotiating interaction and a sociometric perspective examining how children prefer to organize themselves. Study Six presents transcripts of negotiations between teacher and child with interpretive commentary. Chapter Seven follows a class examining the effects on children's academic performance while moving from a directive to a negotiating environment. Chapter Eight presents a study combining three classroom components to create eight classroom environments. It highlights poor independent teacherchild agreement on the elements within the classroom organization that produce the best / worst match on different criteria. It also outlines data indicating poor agreement between In-situ and later questionnaire data collection methods. Chapter Nine suggests that individuality of the child is a persistent theme throughout, particularly in types of curricular interaction and behaviour and that a movement is needed toward developing the negotiating philosophy into traditional classrooms.

This research was concerned with exploring the views of children and young people with a visual impairment (CYPVI) about their experiences and perceptions of social inclusion in secondary mainstream settings in England. It also targeted parents and key professionals working with and around CYPVI in their school setting. The challenge for CYPVI in ‘becoming social and communicative’, particularly for those with the most limited vision, is well documented and it has been suggested that these young people are socially isolated in mainstream settings. The lifelong benefits that arise from successful social inclusion have also been reported, yet there exists a paucity of research regarding the socio-emotional experiences of CYPVI in mainstream settings, particularly those of a secondary age. The current study, conducted by a Trainee Educational Psychologist, who was herself visually impaired, adopted a qualitative methodology. Semi-structured interviews were used with 12 young people, with a severe visual impairment, drawn from five London Boroughs; short questionnaires were used to elicit parents’ and key professionals’ perspectives. Thematic analysis was conducted on the data and eight main themes identified which were interpreted and presented within a conceptual analysis framework. Although limited generalisability, owing to small sample size, was acknowledged, the findings indicate that CYPVI face many potential challenges to their successful social inclusion, particularly during the period of adolescence. Implications of the findings for future practice are discussed; the consideration given to the role of Educational Psychologists in understanding and supporting CYPVI was privileged.

Background. There is growing recognition of the impact of sensory difficulties in autism. However, traditional ‘sensory integration therapies’ lack empirical support and behaviour-based measures may misrepresent some sensory experiences in autism, meaning that sensory atypicalities are poorly understood and supported. There is therefore a need for a new self-regulatory approach to understanding and managing sensory experiences, which is consistent with theory, and draws upon self-reports of individuals with autism. Aims. 1) To expand the evidence base of self-reports of sensory experiences of adolescents with autism. 2) To evaluate the effectiveness of a new 8-week CBT-based group intervention for self-regulation of sensory experiences. Methods. Twelve adolescents aged 11 to 16 years with diagnoses of autism and IQs above 70, from one mainstream secondary school completed the study. A randomised controlled trial (RCT) design was used. To address Aim 1, self-reports were elicited pre-intervention, in a semi-structured interview and analysed thematically. To address Aim 2, quantitative measures of sensory behaviours, anxiety and repetitive behaviours were taken at baseline, post-intervention and follow-up, together with qualitative interview data from experimental groups and parents, post-intervention. Results. Aim 1) Thematic analysis revealed 5 main themes: ‘need for control’, ‘resonance with stimulus affects reactivity’, ‘self in-relation-to others’, ‘barriers to coping relate to consciousness’, and ‘features of adaptive coping strategies’. Aim 2) Quantitative analysis revealed no significant intervention effects, although qualitative reports indicated the intervention raised meta-conscious awareness of sensory experiences, expression and use of language, sense of self in-relation-to others, and adolescents’ use of new coping behaviours. Conclusion. Striking qualitative data suggest the intervention was effective in raising meta-conscious awareness and self-regulation. Results indicate the future need for larger sample sizes, and for the development of more sensitive and valid sensory measures. Implications for EPs include facilitating supportive group dynamics, and developing parent and staff understanding.

This study explores the hypothesis that there are particular difficulties for secondary school students with specific developmental language disorder (SDLD) in understanding contextual, pragmatic meaning in relation to non pragmatic (semantic) meaning. It compares sixty-four SDLD students, aged between twelve and fourteen years, with chronolgical-age-matched and language-age-matched non-language impaired students. Language age is measured by a test of non-pragmatic meaning comprehension. Incorporating the development of new procedures, the study examines the students' comprehension of two types of ambiguity where the context determines the speaker's intention: inconsistent messages of emotion and multiple meanings in context. These types of ambiguity are evident in a range of communicative intent, for example, to express sarcasm, idiomatic expression, deceipt and humour. Preliminary study into adolescent language suggests that, at this age, there is a particular expectation for students to be able to understand these kinds of communication, both in the classroom and socially. The study provides much evidence to support its central hypothesis: SDLD students made significantly fewer pragmatic responses than both comparison groups. The way students responded suggested two types of pragmatic analysis, one concerning plausibility judgment and a second concerning awareness of multiple reference and detection of miscomprehension. Nonlanguage- impaired children were significantly more able to use these types of analysis, for example, to rule out literal interpretations when they did not know the contextually implied meaning. Some evidence is provided to suggest that these analyses are underpinned by skills in both the metacommunicative and linguistic domains. The study's findings have several implcations for research and practice. The are serious implications, for example, for diagnostic assessment, in the light of the literature survey revealing that those currently available do not assess pragmatic meaning comprehension. The findings further provide a basis to challenge a view that disorders in the semantic and pragmatic domains necessarily co-occur, as reflected in the diagnostic category semanti-pragmatic disorder.

The present study seeks to address issues which have so far been lacking in research: how children who have used The Place2Be (TP2B) individual services in their schools have experienced the service long term and whether they feel that TP2B experience has produced personal change for them. Although this area is under-researched, it is of consequence for therapeutic work with children and for understanding how socioemotional work can be done in schools. The sample consists of nine primary school children (three for the pilot research and six in the main study) from a range of ethnic groups from Year 3 or above who did not have child protection concerns raised about them at the time of the study. Some were reported to have developmental delay or difficultly in one or more of the following areas: learning, emotional regulation, attention control, language, and social communication skills. All were recruited through TP2B school project managers and with the co-operation of their parents. The present research draws on an Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach and used both visual and playful interview methods. Accounts from the six children in the main study are presented idiographically, yielding rich analyses of the participants perceptions of the experience and notions of personal change. Idiographic emphasis allows for idiosyncratic meaning-making of the experience to be fully explored. Further, key aspects of the idiographic analysis across cases are identified. These are: the therapeutic play process is highly valued and engendered strong senses of autonomy, control, relatedness, self-expression, learning, relationship building and the processing of emotional experiences. Furthermore, the participants valued the room itself and the play materials inside, and is conceptualised as a space absent of perceived social, gender or cultural assumptions. Three of the participants are able to locate complex processes of personal, positive change. These included increased confidence with peers and parents; increased quality in peer relationships; a decrease in significant anxiety levels; enhanced emotional well-being; and better access to learning. It is argued that the success of the intervention can be usefully framed by Deci’s (1975) theory of intrinsic motivation. That the experience fulfilled the participants’ needs for a sense of competence, autonomy and relatedness are strongly present in the findings of this study. This study supports theoretical principles of therapeutic play and the theoretical model of TP2B, as well as extending understanding about why this is so. TP2B is demonstrated here to be relevant and valuable cross-culturally. Professional implications for TP2B include the importance of secure onward referral mechanisms to ensure continued support for children who would benefit from therapeutic input beyond one year; and organisational conceptualisations of sustainable efficacy. Throughout the present study, play is argued to be fundamental in supporting emotional well-being in children. As such, implications for primary educational provision and policy include the need for greater time and emphasis on a range of children’s play choices in school. Further opportunities to experience autonomy, competence and relatedness are argued to support children’s mental health and well-being and has implication for teaching practice. Implications for EP practice include a greater intersubjective emphasis regarding practitioner reflexivity with relevance to the current EP supervisory process. The current study develops understanding about the use of child-centred, phenomenological methodology and could feasibly be incorporated into core EP practice of assessment and intervention.

This research discusses selective focus in reading a text in relation to the philosophical guidelines of critical education. To pursue this question a model for critical reading is initially sketched, and the literature on selective focus in text reading is reviewed. The existing literature analyses selective focus under the framework of two perspectives: reader-based and text-based. This thesis proposes a third possibility: a social-based perspective. A socio-cognitive conception of selective focus is delineated on the basis of theories that explore the effect of social factors on literacy, language use, and higher cognitive processes. The issues raised at the theoretical level are also investigated in an empirical study. Expert reader's insights about their own reading practices are taken into consideration. Three studies are reported. Two exploratory studies - designed to refine methodological procedures - analyse the response of two groups of four readers. The interview questionnaire that guides the main data collection is based on the results obtained in these initial investigations. The main study considers the data provided by fifteen structured interviews. The sample include readers from three type of course in higher education: initial teacher training for pos-graduate students, master degree students, and doctoral students. A qualitative analysis describes in detail how reader-based, text-based and social-based factors interact within the context of these readers' reading practices. Considering the empirical evidence, the thesis proposes that neither the reader nor the text should be investigated without an appreciation of the social context. However, socio-cultural context is shown not only to provide a further set of variables but also to permeate the development of text-based and reader-based factors. This has important theoretical and educational implications. The final argument of this study is that classroom practices that aim to promote critical reading should give a proper emphasis to the socio-cultural aspect of selective focus.

Existing research investigating the reading abilities of children with a diagnosis of an Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) has consistently identified reading comprehension difficulties in this group alongside well-developed word recognition (decoding) skills. However, this is currently an underresearched area, particularly in relation to identifying impairments in component discourse level comprehension skills involved in the complex task of deriving meaning from text, and developing interventions to improve reading comprehension for children with an ASC. Study One investigated the reading, cognitive and receptive language abilities of 24 children (10 - 12 years) with a clinical diagnosis of an ASC. All children attended a mainstream primary or secondary school in an outer London Local Authority. Children were involved in the research during the period of primary to secondary transition, either in the final term of primary (Year 6) or first two terms of secondary school (Year 7). Standardised measures of reading accuracy, reading comprehension, word reading, cognitive ability and receptive language abilities were obtained and a number of discourse level comprehension skills assessed: comprehension monitoring, anaphoric reference, knowledge of story structure, identification and agreement of pronouns, prediction, text-connecting and global coherence inference. Semistructured interviews were carried out to gain an insight into children with ASC's as "readers". Findings highlighted the heterogeneity of reading and cognitive profiles and receptive language abilities in children with ASC's. The majority of the sample scored within the average range for both standardised measures of reading accuracy and comprehension, however a discrepancy between standard scores for the two component skills (accuracy > comprehension) characterised the sample. Measures of verbal abilities and receptive language abilities were found to be significantly associated with both reading comprehension, reading accuracy and word reading. Individual differences were found in relation to strengths and weaknesses in component comprehension skills, however common difficulties with comprehension monitoring, global coherence inferences and prediction were apparent within the sample. Study Two involved the development of a reading comprehension intervention involving three children from Study One, in their first term of secondary education. Analysis of the children's component comprehension skills informed the development of an individually tailored intervention; facilitating the children's awareness and development of skills and processes involved in reading comprehension. The intervention utilized a think-aloud procedure and incorporated the "Fab Four" strategies from the reciprocal teaching approach. Individual case synopses illustrated areas of competence and difficulty, approaches to learning and use of strategies to facilitate the development of metacognitive skills. Pre and post intervention measures indicated gains for all children in reading comprehension, but to differing degrees. Findings are discussed with reference to the theories of autism and implications for parents, teachers and Educational Psychologists supporting the learning of children with ASC's. Opportunities for future research in this field are discussed.