Charles University in Prague Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Biophysic and Physical Chemistry Candidate: Bc. Martina Dvořáková Supervisor: Doc. Ing. Alice Lázníčková, CSc. Consultant: Mgr. Martina Hermannová, Ph.D. Title of diploma thesis: Optimization of preparative LC-MS method for fractionation of oligosaccharides of hyaluronanu This diploma thesis deals with optimization of LC-MS method for analysis of hyaluronan oligosaccharides in preparative mode. The theoretical part summarizes available information about biological and chemical properties of hyaluronic acid. Hyaluronic acid is easily enzymatically degradable by mammalian hyaluronidases that produce hyaluronan oligosaccharides. The biological function of these degradation products depend on their molecular weight. High-performance liquid chromatography is mainly used for separation and purification of hyaluronan oligosaccharides. A new method for the determination of hyaluronan oligosaccharides is based on a combination of separation techniques and mass spectrometry. The experimental part deals with optimization of ionisation conditions for electrospray ionization mass spectrometry in positive and negative ion mode. In the first step, we focused on setting of capillary voltage, cone voltage, desolvation temperature, flow...

Metastasis is the leading cause of death in patients with cancer, and the extracellular matrix is critical to cancer dissemination. The adhesion receptor, CD44, mediates cellular communication with the extracellular matrix by binding to the glycosaminoglycan, hyaluronan (HA). CD44 and HA play critical roles in cancer progression and development. HA is deposited in extracellular and pericellular matrices where it directs intracellular signaling through interactions with cell-surface CD44. CD44-HA interactions, in turn, direct signaling that is relevant to cancer progression. Importantly, these molecules can both promote and inhibit the oncogenic cascade, although the mechanism by which they promote dual and contrasting functions is unknown.Here we show that HA can both activate and suppress EGFR, a critical regulator of oncogenic signaling, in a context-dependent fashion. Using a 3D collagen system in which HA is either polymerized in collagen matrix or provided soluble in the media (sHA) we report that collagen-embedded HA (eHA) inhibits EGFR activation, filopodia formation, and cell spreading on a collagen matrix. Additionally, we show that CD44 is subject to cell-type changes during cancer progression. We have found that CD44 is expressed in the myoepithelium of the developing mammary gland and regulates the normal function of this cell type. The myoepithelial function of CD44 is also relevant to its role in cancer progression as CD44 is expressed in the basal cells of early-stage breast and prostate cancer but undergoes a basal to luminal epithelial switch with increasing tumorigenicity and is strongly expressed by tumor epithelium. These findings demonstrate a novel role for eHA as a protective molecule when encountered in the collagen matrix during cancer progression and highlight the importance of understanding cell-type specific contributions during cancer progression. Taken together, the findings reported in this dissertation point to a mechanism by which CD44 and HA can function in tumor suppression and promotion, depending on cell-type specific expression and modulation of the extracellular matrix.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the carbodiimide-mediated amidation of hyaluronan (HA). The carbodiimide-mediated amidation includes the formation of a urea derivative, O-acylisourea, between the carbodiimide and a carboxylic group of HA, which a primary amine can displace, resulting in an amide bond. Reaction conditions were investigated and optimized, the molecular weights Mn and Mw were determined with size-exclusion chromatography and by-products were analysed with 1H NMR. The reaction is done at room temperature in slightly acidic pH, giving a degree of substitution between 5 to 15 %. A catalyst, N-hydroxysuccinimide, was needed for the coupling to be successful, since O-acylisourea was shown not to be reactive enough towards primary amines. It was found out that dissociated primary amines successfully couple to HA, contrary to what has been suggested before. 1H NMR revealed that O-acylisourea readily forms a by-product, which is covalently attached to HA, through the means of rearrangement. Also, 1H NMR showed that the carbodiimide reacts with phenols. An increase of Mn and Mw compared with native HA was observed and attributed to ester bond formation between a hydroxyl- and carboxylic group of HA polysaccharides. To conclude, the carbodiimide-mediated amidation is an unspecific reaction which is not suited for the coupling of primary amines to HA.

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Οι πρωτεογλυκάνες και οι αλυσίδες γλυκοζαμινογλυκανών τους αλληλεπιδρούν με αυξητικούς παράγοντες, διαμεμβρανικούς υποδοχείς όπως οι ιντεγκρίνες, ένζυμα, αναστολείς πρωτεασών και με άλλα μόρια της εξωκυττάριας ύλης όπως η ινονεκτίνη, η λαμινίνη και η tenascin. Στην παρούσα διατριβή μελετήσαμε τη χωροχρονική κατανομή των πρωτεογλυκανών versican και CD44 με τη μέθοδο της RT-PCR και του ανοσοφθορισμού από το στάδιο ΧΙ-ΧΙΙ (μορίδιο) έως το στάδιο ΗΗ16+ (28-29 ζεύγη σωμιτών) και τον ρόλο της versican και της CD44 με τη χρήση μονοκλωνικών αντισωμάτων έναντι αυτών κατά την ανάπτυξη του πρώιμου εμβρύου. Η versican είναι πρωτεογλυκάνη θειικής χονδροϊτίνης και αλληλεπιδρά με αυξητικούς παράγοντες, με διάφορες πρωτεΐνες της εξωκυττάριας ύλης και με διαμεμβρανικούς υποδοχείς όπως η CD44. Τα αποτελέσματα της RT-PCR έδειξαν ότι το mRNA της versican εκφράζεται σε όλα τα αναπτυξιακά στάδια που μελετήσαμε. Ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζουν τα προϊόντα εναλλακτικής ωρίμανσης της versican που ανιχνεύσαμε ακόμα και στο στάδιο του μοριδίου και που η έκφρασή τους ρυθμίζεται αναπτυξιακά. Η παρουσία του mRNA της versican σε υψηλά επίπεδα στο στάδιο του μοριδίου (ΧΙ-ΧΙΙ) υποδεικνύει ότι το mRNA της versican είναι ωογενετικής προέλευσης στο στάδιο αυτό. Τα πειράματα μας του ανοσοφθορισμού έδειξαν ότι η versican πρωτεΐνη ανιχνεύεται στο στάδιο του μοριδίου και εκφράζεται έντονα στην επιβλάστη και στην υποβλάστη στο στάδιο του προχωρημένου βλαστιδίου (στάδιο ΧΙΙΙ). Στο στάδιο ΗΗ3+ (ενδιάμεσο γαστρίδιο / intermediate streak) παρατηρήσαμε μεγάλη ένταση φθορισμού στα κύτταρα που μεταναστεύουν μέσα από την πρωτογενή αύλακα και στα μεσεγχυματικά κύτταρα που θα σχηματίσουν το μεσόδερμα και το ενδόδερμα. Στο στάδιο ΗΗ4 (προχωρημένο γαστρίδιο / definitive streak) ένταση φθορισμού της versican ανιχνεύθηκε κύτταρα που μεταναστεύουν μέσα από την πρωτογενή αύλακα καθώς και στα κύτταρα που έχουν αρχίσει να σχηματίζουν το μεσόδερμα και το ενδόδερμα. Στο στάδιο που το έμβρυο έχει σχηματίσει 4 ζεύγη σωμιτών (στάδιο ΗΗ8), ανιχνεύσαμε υψηλή ένταση φθορισμού της versican στη νευρική πλάκα και στις νευρικές πτυχές καθώς ανασηκώνονται να σχηματίσουν το νευρικό σωλήνα. Στο στάδιο ΗΗ12 (16 ζεύγη σωμιτών), ισχυρή ένταση φθορισμού της versican ανιχνεύσαμε στο νευρικό σωλήνα, στο γειτονικό του εξώδερμα, στα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας (neural crest), στα κύτταρα του σωμίτη, στο μεσονέφρο και στο γειτονικό του πλάγιο μεσόδερμα που θα σχηματίσει τους μεσονεφρικούς σωληνίσκους. Αργότερα στην ανάπτυξη, ισχυρή ένταση φθορισμού της versican ανιχνεύσαμε επίσης στο διεγκέφαλο, στον οπτικό μίσχο, στο μεσεγκέφαλο, στο μυελεγκέφαλο, στα τοιχώματα του φάρυγγα και της ραχιαίας αορτής, στο ραχιαίο μεσοκάρδιο, στο μυοκάρδιο και στο ενδοκάρδιο, στο μυοτόμο και σκληροτόμο στους σωμίτες, στα τοιχώματα του εντέρου, καθώς και στην εξωκυττάρια ύλη των εμβρυϊκών κοιλοτήτων. Πειράματα σε έμβρυα που εκτέθηκαν στο αντίσωμα έναντι της versican σε διαφορετικά στάδια ανάπτυξης από το μορίδιο ως το προχωρημένο γαστρίδιο έδειξαν ότι η versican πιθανόν να συμμετέχει στα μονοπάτια σηματοδότησης που καθοδηγούν τη μετανάστευση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας, στο μοριακό δίκτυο για το σχηματισμό του νευρικού σωλήνα, στον καθορισμό ή / και στη διαμερισματοποίηση των προκαρδιακών κυττάρων κατά το σχηματισμό της καρδιάς και στη διατήρηση της αρχιτεκτονικής των εμβρυϊκών κοιλοτήτων. Η CD44 είναι πρωτεογλυκάνη της κυτταρικής επιφάνειας και είναι ο κύριος υποδοχέας του υαλουρονικού. Ανιχνεύσαμε τη CD44 πρωτεΐνη ακόμα και στο στάδιο του μοριδίου. Η παρουσία του mRNA της CD44 σε υψηλά επίπεδα στο στάδιο του μοριδίου μπορεί να δείχνει ότι το mRNA είναι ωογενετικής προέλευσης. Με τη μέθοδο του ανοσοφθορισμού ανιχνεύσαμε έντονο φθορισμό της CD44 στα κύτταρα της επιβλάστης και ειδικότερα σε αυτά που γειτονεύουν με το βλαστόκοιλο και στην υποβλάστη στο στάδιο του προχωρημένου βλαστίδιου (ΧΙΙΙ), ενώ στο στάδιο ΗΗ3+ καθώς συνεχίζονται οι μορφογενετικές κινήσεις της γαστριδίωσης, η CD44 παρουσιάζει ισχυρή ένταση φθορισμού στα κύτταρα της επιβλάστης ,στα μεσεγχυματικά κύτταρα και στα κύτταρα του ενδοδέρματος. Στο στάδιο ΗΗ8 (4 ζεύγη σωμίτες), ανιχνεύσαμε ένταση φθορισμού της CD44 στη νευρική πλάκα και στις νευρικές πτυχές με πρότυπο έκφρασης παρόμοιο με αυτό της έκφρασης της versican. Αργότερα στην ανάπτυξη, στο στάδιο ΗΗ16+ (28-29 ζεύγη σωμιτών) ανιχνεύσαμε ισχυρή ένταση φθορισμού της CD44 ανιχνεύθηκε στα τοιχώματα του διεγκεφάλου, του μεσεγκεφάλου και του νευρικού σωλήνα, στα τοιχώματα του φάρυγγα, στις ραχιαίες και κοιλιακές αορτές, στα αορτικά τόξα, στη νωτοχορδή, στην εξωκυττάρια ύλη στην κοιλότητα του μεσεγκεφάλου και στην κοιλότητα του φάρυγγα, στο ακουστικό κυστίδιο και στην κοιλότητα του ακουστικού κυστιδίου και στα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας που μεταναστεύουν προς το ακουστικό κυστίδιο. Υψηλή ένταση φθορισμού της CD44 ανιχνεύσαμε επίσης στο σκληροτόμο και στο μυοτόμο στους σωμίτες, στα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας, στο ήπαρ, στο μυοκάρδιο, στο ενδοκάρδιο, στον αγωγό φλέβας και στο μεσονέφρο. Έμβρυα που εκτέθηκαν στο αντίσωμα έναντι της CD44 σε διαφορετικά στάδια ανάπτυξης από το μορίδιο ως το πρώιμο νευρίδιο έδειξαν το σημαντικό ρόλο της CD44 στην μορφογένεση του εγκεφάλου, στη διατήρηση της αρχιτεκτονικής της κοιλότητας του εγκεφάλου και των άλλων εμβρυϊκών κοιλοτήτων, στην μετανάστευση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας, στον σχηματισμό της καρδιάς και του αγγειακού συστήματος και στη μορφογένεση των σωμιτών. Τα αποτελέσματα μας έδειξαν τη συνεργιστική δράση των CD44 και versican κατά την ανάπτυξη του πρώιμου εμβρύου. / Proteoglycans and their associated glycosaminoglycans can bind growth factors, integrin and non-integrin cell surface molecules, enzymes, protease inhibitors and other extracellular matrix components including fibronectin, laminin and tenascin. We studied the expression and spatiotemporal distribution of versican and CD44 by RT-PCR and immunofluorescence in the chick embryo from the morula stage (stage XI-XII) to early organogenesis (stage HH16+, 28-29 somites). We also studied the versican and CD44 role by using blocking antibodies in the early chick embryo. Versican is a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan that binds growth factors and interacts with various extracellular matrix proteins and cell surface molecules including the CD44. Combined RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry demonstrated the expression of versican as early as the morula stage. Interestingly, we detected splice variants of versican at the morula stage, and their expression was developmentally regulated. The presence of versican mRNA at the morula stage may indicate that it is of oogenetic origin. Versican fluorescence was strong in the epiblast and the hypoblast at the late blastula stage (XIII). At stage HH3+ (intermediate streak), versican expression was intense in the cells ingressing through the primitive streak and the migrating mesenchymal cells which will form the mesoderm and endoderm. By the definitive streak stage (HH4), versican fluorescence was intense in the cells ingressing through the primitive streak and in the mesenchymal cells that have already started to form the mesoderm and endoderm. At stage HH8 (4 somite pairs), versican expression was strong in the neural plate, the elevated neural folds and the ectoderm neighboring the neural folds. At stage HH12 (16 somite pairs), versican fluorescence was intense in the neural tube and its adjacent ectoderm, the neural crest cells, the somite and in the mesonephros and in the adjacent lateral mesoderm that will form the mesonephric tubules. Later in development, versican fluorescence was intense in the diencephalon, the optic stalk, mesencephalon, myelencephalon. Versican fluorescence was also intense in the dorsal mesocardium, myocardium and endocardium, dorsal aorta and aortic arches, in the myotome and sclerotome in somites, gut and in the extracellular matrix of embryonic cavities. Inhibition of the function of versican by blocking antibodies showed that versican is crucial for the neural tube closure, neural crest migration, formation of the heart tube, for the architecture of embryonic cavities and consequently tissue and organ morphogenesis. CD44 is a transmembrane part-time proteoglycan and the main receptor for hyaluronan. We detected CD44 protein even at the morula stage. The presence of high levels of CD44 mRNA at the morula stage indicated that this is an oogenetic mRNA. CD44 fluorescence was strong in the epiblast cells, especially those neighboring the blastocoele, and in the hypoblast at the late blastula stage (XIII). At stage HH3+, during gastrulation, CD44 was expressed strongly in the epiblast cells, in mesenchymal cells and in endoderm cells. At stage HH8 (4 somite pairs), strong CD44 expression was detected in the neural plate and neural folds and their adjacent ectoderm and this expression pattern was similar to that of versican. Later in development, CD44 expression was intense in the diencephalon, optic stalks, mesencephalon, myelencephalon, metencephalon, auditory vesicles and the neural crest cells migrating towards the auditory vesicle and the neural tube. CD44 fluorescence was also intense in the dorsal mesocardium, myocardium, endocardium, aortae and aortic arches, sclerotome and myotome in somites, mesonephros, liver, gut and in the migrating neural crest cells that will form the sympathetic and enteric ganglia. Inhibition of CD44 function by blocking antibodies showed that CD44 is crucial for the architecture of the embryonic cavities such as the brain lumen, neural tube closure, neural crest cell migration, cardiac and cardiovascular formation and somite morphogenesis. Our results showed a synergistic role of CD44 and versican during the development of the early embryo.

In this diploma thesis has been studied system of hydrogels based on interaction between polyelectrolyte and surfactants, especially their solubilizing properties. As a surfactant was used ionic cationic cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). As a polyelectrolyte was chosen native anionic hyaluronan with various molecular weight - 0,3; 0,9; 1,6 MDa and with different concentration - 2%, 4%, 6% wt. Solubilization experiments were realized with hydrophobic dye sudan red G. The whole system was prepared in the simpliest model system of physiological solution 0,15 M NaCl and in water. At the prepared gels was investigated their stability, influence of the environment, molecular weight and concentration on solubilization. Gels were prepared in rate hyaluronan-surfactant 1:1. The purpose of this diploma thesis was to find and optimize the appropriate procedure for determining solubilization capacity by using UV-VIS spectrophotometry.

The lymphatic system comprises a network of vessels whose primary functions are the maintenance of extracellular fluid balance and the transport of antigen-presenting cells from the periphery to the lymph nodes, thus facilitating immunological surveillance of the tissues and activation of adaptive immunity. In malignant disease, the lymphatics are both a route for dissemination and a reservoir for metastatic cancers such as cutaneous melanoma and breast carcinoma, where lymph node involvement is an early indicator of prognosis. Yet, despite such obvious importance in disease, the fundamental biology of the lymphatics is poorly understood and critical mechanisms such as those underlying trafficking of dendritic and tumour cells have been largely overlooked. The focus of this thesis is lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor LYVE-1, and the regulation of its binding to the extracellular matrix glycosaminoglycan, hyaluronan (HA). Found selectively on the surface of lymphatic vessels, but sharing many of the features of the leukocyte homing receptor CD44, LYVE-1 appears a likely candidate for regulation of lymphatic trafficking during the stage at which cells migrate into the vessel. However, the precise function of LYVE-1 in recent years has remained enigmatic, not least because the native receptor is subject to post-translational modification with sialic acid, with the effect that HA binding is inhibited in lymphatic endothelium. The results of this thesis demonstrate that sialylation of LYVE-1 is not a short term regulatory modification, but rather a longer term mechanism that imposes a requirement for higher order receptor complex formation or HA crosslinking to achieve stable binding. This implies that native LYVE-1 is an active HA binding protein even when sialylated, with implications for our understanding of the role played by the receptor in HA uptake and metabolism, and transmigration of lymphatic endothelium by migratory leukocytes. Like CD44, HA binding to LYVE-1 is dependent on multivalent interactions between receptor and ligand, and may be enhanced by processes that increase the avidity of the interaction. Here for the first time it is shown that the native LYVE-1 molecule on lymphatic endothelium may be activated to bind HA following clustering of the receptor, or presentation of HA in a cross-linked form, such as that resulting from incubation with the HA binding protein TSG-6.

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Hyaluronan is a ubiquitous glycosaminoglycan which is an important constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM). In addition to organizing the extracellular matrix and regulating tissue homeostasis, hyaluronan, by binding to its main cell surface receptor CD44, is involved in intracellular signaling pathways regulating major cellular processes during development, wound healing, inflammation and cancer. Accumulation of hyaluronan in cancer promotes progression of the disease and correlates with poor prognosis. This thesis focuses on the regulation of hyaluronan synthesis and its signaling in normal and cancer cells. Cancer cells in solid tumors are surrounded by stroma, which has an essential role in the growth and metastasis of tumors. Prominent members of the tumor stroma are fibroblasts, which synthesize ECM components, such as hyaluronan, and secrete growth factors, and activate intracellular signaling pathways. We demonstrate a cross-talk between the receptors for platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB), transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) and CD44 in dermal fibroblasts. We found that PDGF-BB can activate the Smad signaling pathway downstream of the TGFβ receptor I (TβRI), and that PDGF-BB-induced migration depends on TβRI. CD44 forms a ternary complex with the receptors for PDGF-BB and TGFβ, and negatively regulates their signaling. Furthermore, we demonstrate that TGFβ stimulation of mammary epithelial cells transcriptionally upregulates hyaluronan synthase 2 (HAS2), which is essential for TGFβ-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT); in this process, polarized epithelial cells adapt a mesenchymal phenotype which facilitates migration and invasion. HAS2 protein activity and stability is regulated by posttranslational modifications, including ubiquitination. We investigated the ubiquitination of HAS2 in aggressive breast cancer cells, whose metastasizing capability depends on HAS2-synthesized hyaluronan. We identified two deubiquitinating enzymes, USP4 and USP17, which target HAS2 and affect its activity and stability. In summary, these studies increase the knowledge about the regulation of hyaluronan production and its role in cancer progression.