This study is concentrated on modelling and developing the controller for the light-duty hybrid electric truck. The hybrid electric vehicle has advantages in fuel economy. However, there have been relatively few studies on commercial HEVs, whilst a considerable number of studies on the hybrid electric system have been conducted in the field of passenger cars. So the current status and the methodologies to develop the LD hybrid electric truck model have been studied through the literature review. The modelling process used in this study is divided into three major stages. The first stage is to determine the structure of the hybrid electric truck and define the hardware. The second is the component modelling using the AMESim simulation tool to develop a forward facing model. In order to complete the component modelling, the information and data were collected from various sources including references and ADVISOR. The third stage is concerned with the controller which was written in Simulink. This was run in a co-simulation with the AMESim vehicle model. Through the initial simulation, the charge-sustaining performance of this controller was verified and improved. Finally, the simulations for the complete model were carried out over a number of drive cycles, such as CBDTRUCK, JE05, and TRL LGV drive cycle, to evaluate and analyse the effect on the fuel economy and the vehicle performance by the engine operating zone and the EM power capacity. The report presents a comparison of the fuel efficiency of the conventional vehicle and the LD hybrid electric truck. The results obtained by the simulation show the feasibility to build the complete vehicle with the designed controller.

With the need for greener powertrains every more present, automakers and part suppliers are lacking skill staff to fulfill design roles. It is estimated there are over 20 million lines of software code in vehicles today and many embedded controllers. The shortage of these engineers is compounded by the economic down-turn of 2008-2009, which resulted in massive 20% to 30% layoffs, reduced internships and reduction of programs designed to recruit new talent. To increase their workforce pool, automakers are working with universities and governments operate student competitions such as EcoCAR 2: Plugging into the Future, alongside traditional private/university collaborations. These programs present students with real-world engineering challenges and the opportunities to design/construction solutions. This also exposes students to the concepts of experiential learning. The objective of this thesis will be to discuss the design, construction and operation of a vehicle for a student design competition or research group at an educational institution. A process based on model based design will be undertaken, which allows for a majority of the vehicle???s design to be completed virtually prior to vehicle prototyping. In this work the model based design method is based on General Motor???s Vehicle Design Process. A project management plan is also proposed, which breaks down tasks into three technical areas (mechanical, electrical and controls) and allows for parallelization and reduced development time will also be proposed. Finally, the resources required to operate a vehicle design team will be defined. This includes the support needed from the University, physical space, software and hardware tools, safety considerations and human capital. Examples are drawn from 2013 Chevrolet Malibu converted to a plug-in hybrid vehicle with an ethanol engine and a battery pack was designed and built. This thesis will showcase the concepts mentioned above through examples from the University of Waterloo Alternative Fuels Team and its participation in international EcoCAR 2 vehicle development competition. The conclusion is that application of the concepts did result in the successful construction of an EcoCAR 2 vehicle. Generally projects that were successful were provided with sufficient technical information from suppliers and supported with past-experiences. Recommendations include: (i) working with suppliers who are familiar with academic environments (including working with students new to vehicle design), (ii) rigorous documentation of design for future designs; and (iii) close collaboration with industry experts to review designs, manufacturing, project management and budgets.

In this paper, the need to develop a control strategy and test apparatus for next generation hybrid vehicles was realized. The complexity of today’s and future hybrid vehicles necessitates the need for an equally advanced method of control that can extract the optimal fuel economy from the system as a whole. A review of existing hybrid vehicle control strategies was performed. Overall, much research has been done on the optimization of series and parallel type vehicles, but virtually no information was found on the optimal use of advanced powersplit drivetrains. However, the control strategy concepts explored in the literature are useful, and can be extended to complex architectures like the General Motors Two-Mode design. The equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) method developed by Rizzoni et al at the Ohio State University has proven to be a well developed control strategy that has seen much progress over the last decade. Although it has been only demonstrated on parallel-type vehicles, it was chosen as the basis for the control strategy methodology. An in-depth analysis on the Two-Mode transmission operation was performed. The fundamental equations for each of its range states were derived for future use in developing a plant model, and for use in control strategy development. The torque and speed capabilities of each of its modes and gears were analysed. A detailed plant model was created to form a virtual test bed for control strategy development purposes. The models use empirical data provided by manufactures, which ensures a reasonable level of accuracy in portraying component constraints and efficiencies. Building on the ECMS, a similar hybrid vehicle control strategy was developed for Two-Mode transmission based vehicles. It was modified to handle two degrees of freedom as required by the system. Its objective is to constantly minimize the total equivalent power use in the system which is defined as the sum of the chemical power in the fuel and the power used by the battery multiplied by an equivalency factor. Overall, the control strategy provides a strong basis for the optimal control of nextgeneration hybrid vehicles incorporating powersplit transmissions. It is suggested that further research be explored in combining rule-based control methods with the developed optimization based method since rule-based methods can add the stability required for enhanced drivability. / Graduate / 10000-01-01

The use of alternative fuels and advanced powertrain technologies has been increasing over the past few years as vehicle emissions and fuel economy have become prominent in both manufacturer needs and consumer demands. With more hybrids emerging from all automotive manufacturers, the use of computer modeling has quickly taken a lead in the testing of these innovative powertrain designs. Although on-vehicle testing remains an important part of the design process, modeling and simulation is proven to be an invaluable tool that can be applied anywhere from preliminary powertrain design to controller software validation. The Hybrid Electric Vehicle Team (HEVT) of Virginia Tech is applying for participation in the next Advanced Vehicle Technology Competition. EcoCAR 3 is a new four year competition sponsored by the Department of Energy and General Motors with the intention of promoting sustainable energy in the automotive sector. The goal of the competition is to guide students from universities in North America to create new and innovative technologies to reduce the environmental impact of modern day transportation. EcoCAR 3, like its predecessors, will give students hands-on experience in designing and implementing advanced technologies in a setting similar to that of current production vehicles. The primary goals of the competition are to improve upon a provided conventional, internal combustion engine production vehicle by designing and constructing a powertrain that accomplishes the following: • Reduce Energy Consumption • Reduce Well-to-Wheel (WTW) Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions • Reduce Criteria Tailpipe Emissions • Maintain Consumer Acceptability in the area of Performance, Utility, and Safety • Meet Energy and Environmental Goals, while considering Cost and Innovation This paper presents a systematic approach in selecting a powertrain for HEVT to develop in the upcoming competition using model-based design. Using a base set of powertrain component models, several powertrain configurations are modeled and tested to show the progression from a basic conventional vehicle to several advanced hybrid vehicles. Each model is designed to generate energy consumption data, efficiency, emissions, as well as many other parameters that can be used to compare each of the powertrain configurations. A powertrain design is selected to meet the goals of the competition after exploring many powertrain configurations and energy sources. Three parallel powertrains are discussed to find a combination capable of meeting the target energy consumption and WTW GHG emissions while also meeting all of the performance goals. The first of these powertrains is sized to model a typical belted alternator starter (BAS) system and shows small improvements over a conventional vehicle. The next design is a parallel through the road hybrid that is sized to meet most power needs with an electric motor and a smaller IC engine. This case comes closer to the design goals, but still falls short on total energy consumption. Lastly, the battery and motor size are increased to allow a charge depleting mode, adding stored grid electricity to the energy sources. This electric energy only mode is able to displace a large amount of the fuel energy consumption based on the SAE J1711 method for determining utility factor weighted energy consumption of a plug-in hybrid vehicle. The final design is a Parallel Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle using E85 fuel and a 7 kWh battery to provide an all-electric charge depleting range of 34 km (21 mi). / Master of Science

<div>With the upsurge of greenhouse gas emissions and rapid depletion of fossil fuels, the pressure on the transportation industry to develop new vehicles with improved fuel economy without sacrificing performance is on the rise. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), which employ an internal combustion engine as well as an electric motor as power sources, are becoming increasingly popular alternatives to traditional engine only vehicles. However, the presence of multiple power sources makes HEVs more complex. A significant task in developing an HEV is designing a power management strategy, defined as a control system tasked with the responsibility of efficiently splitting the power/torque demand from the separate energy sources. Five different types of power management strategies, which were developed previously, are reviewed in this work, including dynamic programming, equivalent consumption minimization strategy, proportional state-of-charge algorithm, regression modeling and long short term memory modeling. The effects of these power management strategies on the vehicle performance are studied using a simplified model of the vehicle. This work also proposes an original power management strategy development using a genetic algorithm. This power management strategy is compared to dynamic programming and several similarities and differences are observed in the results of dynamic programming and genetic algorithm. For a particular drive cycle, the implementation of the genetic algorithm strategy on the vehicle model leads to a vehicle speed profile that almost matches the original speed profile of that drive cycle.</div>

<p>In this thesis a hybrid electrical powertrain called the Four Quadrant Transducer (4QT) has been evaluated through different driving simulations, which later resulted in the manufacture of a prototype.</p><p>The simulation of a 12 metric ton distribution truck showed that the 4QT system can reduce the fuel consumption by approximately 30 % during the FTP75 drive cycle. The reduction in fuel consumption is due to a more optimal control of the combustion engine and regenerative braking of the vehicle.</p><p>The prototype 4QT has been down scaled from the distribution truck size used in the simulations to a size suitable for a medium sized passenger car. This was done to fit the test rig in the electric machine laboratory.</p><p>The prototype was tested in the test bench to analyse performances such as efficiency, losses and thermal behaviour. These factors were investigated using both analytical models and the finite element method and later by measurements. The measured results were according to expectations.</p> / <p>I denna doktorsavhandling presenteras ett nytt elhybridsystem för vägfordon benämnt fyrkvadrant omvandlare, "Four Quadrant Transducer (4QT)". Detta system har simulerats under körcykler som t ex FTP75 för att kunna bilda sig en uppfattning om bränsleförbrukningen för hybridsystemet och för att kunna dimensionera elmaskinerna till systemet. En elmaskinprototyp för hybridsystemet har konstruerats och provats i momentvåg.</p><p>Enligt utförda simuleringar blir besparingen i bränsleförbrukning ca 30% för en tolv tons distributionslastbil utrustad med en 100kW dieselmotor under körcykeln FTP75. Denna minskning av bränsleförbrukning kommer främst från en mera optimal kontroll av förbränningsmotorn samt regenerativ bromsning av fordonet.</p><p>Den konstruerade prototypen är avsedd för en medelstor bil. Anledningen till att prototypen inte byggdes i en storlek passande för distributionslastbilen var att prototypen skulle passa i testutrustningen i elmaskinlaboratoriet.</p><p>Prototypen provades i momentvåg för att undersöka verkningsgrad, förluster och termiska prestanda. Resultaten är enligt förväntningarna.</p>

In this thesis a hybrid electrical powertrain called the Four Quadrant Transducer (4QT) has been evaluated through different driving simulations, which later resulted in the manufacture of a prototype. The simulation of a 12 metric ton distribution truck showed that the 4QT system can reduce the fuel consumption by approximately 30 % during the FTP75 drive cycle. The reduction in fuel consumption is due to a more optimal control of the combustion engine and regenerative braking of the vehicle. The prototype 4QT has been down scaled from the distribution truck size used in the simulations to a size suitable for a medium sized passenger car. This was done to fit the test rig in the electric machine laboratory. The prototype was tested in the test bench to analyse performances such as efficiency, losses and thermal behaviour. These factors were investigated using both analytical models and the finite element method and later by measurements. The measured results were according to expectations. / I denna doktorsavhandling presenteras ett nytt elhybridsystem för vägfordon benämnt fyrkvadrant omvandlare, "Four Quadrant Transducer (4QT)". Detta system har simulerats under körcykler som t ex FTP75 för att kunna bilda sig en uppfattning om bränsleförbrukningen för hybridsystemet och för att kunna dimensionera elmaskinerna till systemet. En elmaskinprototyp för hybridsystemet har konstruerats och provats i momentvåg. Enligt utförda simuleringar blir besparingen i bränsleförbrukning ca 30% för en tolv tons distributionslastbil utrustad med en 100kW dieselmotor under körcykeln FTP75. Denna minskning av bränsleförbrukning kommer främst från en mera optimal kontroll av förbränningsmotorn samt regenerativ bromsning av fordonet. Den konstruerade prototypen är avsedd för en medelstor bil. Anledningen till att prototypen inte byggdes i en storlek passande för distributionslastbilen var att prototypen skulle passa i testutrustningen i elmaskinlaboratoriet. Prototypen provades i momentvåg för att undersöka verkningsgrad, förluster och termiska prestanda. Resultaten är enligt förväntningarna. / QC 20101014

The objective of this research is to develop suitable models to simulate and analyse Electrical Vehicle (EV) power-trains to identify and improve some of the deficiencies of EVs and investigate new system architectures. Although some electro-chemical batteries improvements have lately been achieved in specific-energy, the power density is still low. Therefore, an efficient, cost-effective and high power density support unit could facilitate EV competitiveness compared to conventional internal combustion engine powered vehicles in the near future. The Na-Ni-Cl2, or ZEBRA battery as it is most commonly known, has good energy and power densities; it is very promising electro-chemical battery candidate for EV's. The thesis presents a detail simulation model for the ZEBRA technology and investigates its application in an EV power-train with regard to state-of-charge and voltage transients. Unlike other battery systems, the ZEBRA technology can sustain about 5-10% of failed cells. While this is advantageous in single series string or single battery operation it is problematic when higher numbers of batteries are connected in parallel. The simulation model is used to investigate faulted operation of parallel battery configurations. A non-linear capacitance versus voltage function is implemented for the supercapacitor model which yields good energy and terminal voltage predictions when the supercapacitor is cycled over dynamic regimes common to EV applications. A thermal model is also included. Multiple energy source systems are modelled and studied in the form of an energy dense ZEBRA battery connected in parallel with a power dense supercapacitor system. The combination is shown to increase available power, reduce the maximum power demanded from the battery and decrease battery internal power loss. Consequently, battery life would be increased and more energy would be recovered from regenerative braking, enhancing the energy conversion efficiency of the power-train.A combination of ICE and ZEBRA battery is implemented as a range extender for London taxi driving from Manchester to London. The hybridisation ratio of the system is discussed and applied to fulfil the requirement with minimum emissions. This study offers a suitable model for different energy sources, and then optimises the vehicle energy storage combination to realize its full potential. The developed model is used to assess different energy source combinations in order to achieve an energy efficient combination that provides an improved vehicle performance, and, importantly, to understand the energy source interconnection issues in terms of energy flow and circuit transients.

In recent years government, academia and industry have been pursuing fuel cell technology as an alternative to current power generating technologies. The automotive industry has targeted fuel cell technology as a potential alternative to internal combustion engines. The goal of this research is to understand and quantify the impact and effects of low temperature operation has on the performance and efficiency of vehicle fuel cell systems through modeling. More specifically, this work addresses issues of the initial thermal transient known to the automotive community as "cold-start" effects. Cold-start effects play a significant role in power limitations in a fuel cell vehicle, and may require hybridization (batteries) to supplement available power. A fuel cell system model developed as part of this work allows users to define the basic thermal fluid relationships in a fuel cell system. The model can be used as a stand-alone version or as part of a complex fuel cell vehicle model. Fuel cells are being considered for transportation primarily because they have the ability to increase vehicle energy efficiency and significantly reduce or eliminate tailpipe emissions. A proton exchange membrane fuel cell is an electrochemical device for which the operational characteristics depend heavily upon temperature. Thus, it is important to know how the thermal design of the system affects the performance of a fuel cell, which governs the efficiency and performance of the system. This work revealed that the impact on efficiency of a cold-start yielded a 5 % increase in fuel use over a regulated drive cycle for the converted sport utility vehicle. The performance of the fuel cell vehicle also suffered due to operation at low temperatures. Operation of the fuel cell at 20 C yielded only 50% of the available power to the vehicle system. / Master of Science

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