Biodiesel and hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) are currently viewed by the transportation sector as the most viable alternative fuels to replace petroleum-based fuels. The use of biodiesel has, however, been limited by the deteriorative effect of biodiesel on rubber parts in automobile fuel systems. This work therefore aimed at investigating the degradation of acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) and fluoroelastomers (FKM) on exposure to biodiesel and HVO at different temperatures and oxygen concentrations in an automated ageing equipment and a high-pressure autoclave. The oxidation of biodiesel at 80 °C was promoted by an increase in the oxygen partial pressure, resulting in the formation of larger amounts of hydroperoxides and acids in the fuel. The fatty acid methyl esters of the biodiesel oxidized less at 150 °C on autoclave aging, because the termination reactions between alkyl and alkylperoxyl radicals dominated over the initiation reactions. HVO consists of saturated hydrocarbons, and remained intact during the exposure. The NBR absorbed a large amount of biodiesel due to fuel-driven internal cavitation in the rubber, and the uptake increased with increasing oxygen partial pressure due to the increase in concentration of oxidation products of the biodiesel. The absence of a tan δ peak (dynamical mechanical measurements) of the bound rubber and the appearance of carbon black particles devoid of rubber suggested that the cavitation was caused by the detachment of bound rubber from particle surfaces. A significant decrease in the strain-at-break and in the Payne-effect amplitude of NBR exposed to biodiesel was explained as being due to the damage caused by biodiesel to the rubber-carbon-black network. During the high-temperature autoclave ageing, the NBR swelled less in biodiesel, and showed a small decrease in the strain-at-break due to the cleavage of rubber chains. The degradation of NBR in the absence of carbon black was due only to biodiesel-promoted oxidative crosslinking. The zinc cations released by the dissolution of zinc oxide particles in biodiesel promoted reduction reactions in the acrylonitrile part of the NBR. Heat-treated star-shaped ZnO particles dissolved more slowly in biodiesel than the commercial ZnO nanoparticles due to the elimination of inter-particle porosity by heat treatment. The fuel sorption was hindered in HVO-exposed NBR by the steric constraints of the bulky HVO molecules. The extensibility of NBR decreased only slightly after exposure to HVO, due to the migration of plasticizer from the rubber. The bisphenol-cured FKM co- and terpolymer swelled more than the peroxide-cured GFLT-type FKM in biodiesel due to the chain cleavage caused by the attack of biodiesel on the double bonds formed during the bisphenol curing. The FKM rubbers absorbed biodiesel faster, and to a greater extent, with increasing oxygen concentration. It is suggested that the extensive biodiesel uptake and the decrease in the strain-at-break and Young’s modulus of the FKM terpolymer was due to dehydrofluorination of the rubber by the coordination complexes of biodiesel and magnesium oxide and calcium hydroxide particles. An increase in the CH2-concentration of the extracted FKM rubbers suggested that biodiesel was grafted onto the FKM at the unsaturated sites resulting from dehydrofluorination. / <p>QC 20170227</p>

Growing prices, limited supply, and public concern about greenhouse gases associated with crude-derived jet fuels have led to development of renewable alternatives which must be compatible with the worldwide civilian and military aviation infrastructure, which were designed for operation with Jet-A/JP-8. Any alternative fuel should not have negative effects on the aircraft engines and fuel systems, especially from a thermal stability perspective, since any adverse effect of the physical properties, and chemical composition, including existence of trace elements, of those fuels may only be revealed after extensive operation, resulting in higher life-cycle maintenance and operation costs. This study considered four types of alternative fuels: two derived by Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process, and two types of Hydro-processing Esters and Fatty acids (HEFA). For each of these types, both raw and 50:50 blends in volume with Jet-A samples have been prepared, thus resulting in eight different fuel blends. Fit-for-purpose ability of these alternative fuels is first investigated by studying the effects of the fuel properties and composition effects on elastomer materials, and micro-turbine performance. When elastomer o-rings, similar to those used in aircraft fuel systems were immersed in renewable fuels, smaller volume change or swelling was detected (lower than 2%), contrary to a 14% swelling observed for baseline Jet-A. Lower swelling may result into leaks during aircraft operation. This trend was reversed when renewable fuels were blended with aromatics containing Jet-A. Lower energetic content per unit volume of the renewable fuels, resulted in a thrust reduction around 10% when compared to baseline Jet-A at full throttle settings, but other than this, no other significant effect on the engine combustion temperature or other parameters were found for short iv duration testing. On the other hand at the end of the alternative fuel testing an injector issue was detected, which caused a localized heat zone at the turbine stator, and subsequent damage. The investigation of the causes of this nozzle fouling, which may be related to fuel contamination, turbine manufacture defects, or operation conditions is left for future studies. Primary focus of this study is coking behavior of 8 different alternative fuel blends over 4 different metallic surfaces, as compared against baseline Jet-A. A specialized single tube heat exchanger apparatus was used where each fuel sample was allowed to flow through a metal tube placed inside a tube furnace. Thermal stresses caused by the break-down of hydrocarbon molecules and the catalytic effects of the tube surfaces affect thermal stability of the fuel, leading to coking deposits under the auto-oxidation and pyrolysis mechanisms. In the results reported in this study, physical methods such as gravimetric measurements were used to obtain the deposits, while UV/VIS absorption, and GC/MS were used to study chemical changes in fuel composition and their relation with coking deposits. Thermal depositions between 16 and 46 μg/cm2 were measured at the tubes after 3 hours of testing, finding no significant differences between the baseline Jet-A and the renewable fuels blends, even when sulfur levels, which are linked to deposits formation, were lower for the renewable fuels. Fuel bulk constituents, such as paraffins and cycloalkanes, under thermal stressing and catalytic influence of the tube metals cracked into reactive intermediates leading to surface deposits formation, like aromatic compounds. These compounds were identified by the shift towards longer excitation wavelengths of the UV-Vis absorption measurements on stressed fuels.

The paper describes the comparison and the difference of modern hydraulic fluids compared to conventional hydraulic fluids. A comparison of different base oil groups, solvent neutrals, group I and comparison with hydrotreated/hydroprocessed group II and/or group III base oils is presented. The influence on oxidation stability, elastomer compatibility, carbon distribution and physical properties is outlined.

The paper describes the comparison and the difference of modern hydraulic fluids compared to conventional hydraulic fluids. A comparison of different base oil groups, solvent neutrals, group I and comparison with hydrotreated/hydroprocessed group II and/or group III base oils is presented. The influence on oxidation stability, elastomer compatibility, carbon distribution and physical properties is outlined.

[ES] Las emisiones de CO2 en el sector transporte se han incrementado considerablemente durante los últimos años debido al desarrollo económico mundial. El crecimiento de las flotas de transporte, junto con otros factores, ha contribuido al desequilibrio del ciclo de carbono del planeta. Es por ello que el CO2 se considera un gas de efecto invernadero de origen antropogénico que debe ser reducido para evitar el calentamiento global. Las estrategias para reducir el CO2 en el sector transporte están enfocadas a la electrificación y al uso de combustibles neutros o de bajo impacto al ambiente. Sin embargo, una efectiva implementación de esta última requiere un profundo entendimiento de la combustión con tales combustibles. En la presente tesis doctoral, se ha caracterizado experimentalmente la combustión de diferentes tipos de combustibles, entre ellos, algunos de bajo impacto en emisiones de CO2 como lo son el Aceite Vegetal Hidrotratado (HVO) y dos éteres de oximetileno (OME1 y OMEx).Además, por su potencial en la reducción de contaminantes se han evaluado mezclas de diésel y gasolina y de HVO y Gas Licuado de Petróleo (LPG), lo que requirió adecuar el sistema de inyección para evitar la evaporación a lo largo de la línea. Todos estos combustibles y mezclas han sido inyectados con una tobera mono-orificio y han sido evaluados mediante técnicas de visualización a alta velocidad bajo diferentes condiciones termodinámicas típicas de un motor de encendido por compresión operando en condiciones de combustión a baja temperatura, en instalaciones con accesos ópticos. Se ha analizado el efecto de las propiedades físico químicas de estos combustibles y mezclas sobre los parámetros característicos de un chorro como lo son la longitud líquida y la penetración de vapor. La combustión ha sido evaluada mediante la caracterización del tiempo de retraso, de la liberación de calor y la longitud del despegue de la llama, que viene condicionada por el proceso de mezcla. Igualmente, el estudio de la formación de hollín en función de las propiedades del combustible y de las características del proceso de mezcla, representa un aporte importante de esta tesis. En adición a los beneficios en reducción de CO2 que brindan los combustibles y mezclas utilizados en este estudio, estos también redujeron la formación de hollín en la cámara de combustión, destacándose entre ellos los combustibles oxigenados, especialmente el OMEx que además de no formar hollín, fue el de mayor reactividad en todas las condiciones de operación evaluadas. / [CA] Les emissions de CO2 en el sector transport s'han incrementat considerablement durant els últims anys a causa del desenvolupament econòmic mundial. El creixement de les flotes de transport, juntament amb altres factors, ha contribuït al desequilibri del cicle de carboni del planeta. És per això, que el CO2 es considera un gas d'efecte hivernacle d'origen antropogènic que ha de ser reduït per evitar l'escalfament global. Les estratègies per reduir el CO2 dins el sector transport, estan enfocades a l'electrificació i a l'ús de combustibles neutres o de baix impacte ambiental. No obstant això, una efectiva implementació d'aquesta última, requereix un profund coneixement del procés de combustió d'aquests combustibles. En la present tesi doctoral, s'ha caracteritzat experimentalment la combustió de diferents tipus de combustibles, entre ells, alguns de baix impacte en emissions de CO2 com són l'Oli Vegetal Hidrotratat (HVO) i dos èters de oximetileno (OME1 i OMEx) .A més , degut al seu alt potencial en la reducció de contaminants, s'han avaluat mescles de dièsel i gasolina, i de HVO i Gas Liquat de Petroli (LPG), el que va requerir adequar el sistema d'injecció per evitar l'evaporació al llarg de la línia. Tots aquests combustibles i mescles han estat injectats amb una tovera mono-orifici i han estat avaluats mitjançant tècniques de visualització a alta velocitat a través dels accessos òptics del que disposa la instal·lació. Les diferents condicions termodinàmiques utilitzades son típiques d'un motor d'encesa per compressió operant en condicions de combustió a baixa temperatura. S'ha analitzat l'efecte de les propietats fisicoquímiques d'aquests combustibles i de les mescles sobre els paràmetres característics d'un raig com són la longitud líquida i la penetració de vapor. La combustió ha estat avaluada mitjançant la caracterització del temps de retard, de l'alliberació de calor i de la longitud de l'enlairament de la flama que ve condicionada pel procés de mescla. A més, l'estudi de la formació de sutge en funció de les propietats del combustible i de les característiques del procés de mescla, representa una aportació important d'aquesta tesi evidenciant que a més dels beneficis en reducció de CO2 que brinden tots aquests combustibles i mescles, també varen reduir la formació de sutge a la cambra de combustió, destacant-se entre ells els combustibles oxigenats, especialment el OMEx, que a més de no formar sutge, va ser el de major reactivitat en totes les condicions d'operació avaluades. / [EN] CO2 emissions in the transport sector have increased considerably in recent years due to global economic development. The growth of transport fleets, along with other factors, has contributed to the imbalance of the planet's carbon cycle. For that, CO2 is considered a greenhouse gas from anthropogenic origin that must be reduced to avoid global warming. Strategies to reduce CO2 in the transport sector are focused on electrification and the use of neutral fuels or those with a low impact on the environment. However, an effective implementation of the latter requires a deep understanding of the combustion with those fuels. In this doctoral thesis, the combustion of different types of fuels has been experimentally characterized, including some with low impact on CO2 emissions such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) and two oxymethylene ethers (OME1 and OMEx). Furthermore, due to their potential in reducing pollutants, blends of diesel and gasoline and HVO and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) have also been evaluated, which required adapting the injection system to avoid evaporation along the injection line. All these fuels and blends have been injected with a single-hole nozzle and they have been evaluated using high speed visualization techniques under different thermodynamic conditions typical of a compression ignition engine operating under low-temperature combustion conditions in installations with optical accesses. The effect of the physical-chemical properties of these fuels and blends on the characteristic parameters of a jet, such as the liquid length and the vapor penetration, has been analyzed. Combustion has been evaluated by characterizing the ignition delay, the heat release and the flame Lift-off length that is conditioned by the mixing process. Furthermore, the study of soot formation based on the fuel properties and the characteristics of the mixing process represents an important contribution of this thesis, showing that in addition to the benefits in CO2 reduction provided by the different fuels and blends used in this study, these fuels also reduced the soot formation in the combustion chamber, highlighting among them the oxygenated fuels, especially OMEx which, in addition to not forming soot, was the most reactive in all conditions of operation evaluated. / This research has been partly funded by the Government of Spain and FEDER under TRANCO project (TRA2017-87694-R), by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Programme through the ENERXICO project, grant agreement n° 828947, and from the Mexican Department of Energy, CONACYT-SENER Hidrocarburos grant agreement n° B-S-69926 and by Universitat Politècnica de València through the Programa de Ayudas de Investigación y Desarrollo (PAID-01-18 and PAID-06-18). / García Carrero, AA. (2021). Experimental Study of the Fuel Effect on Diffusion Combustion and Soot Formation under Diesel Engine-Like Conditions [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/179997

[ES] La reducción de la huella de carbono de los motores de combustión interna así como de sus emisiones contaminantes es necesaria para la supervivencia de esta tecnología, especialmente para aplicaciones de uso medio y pesado. En la última década, investigadores y fabricantes han explorado diferentes enfoques para lograr este objetivo. En este sentido, el uso de combustibles alternativos y tecnologías alternativas se considera una vía potencial para alcanzarlo. Dentro del ámbito de los combustibles alternativos, los e-fuels y los biocombustibles están ganando relevancia, ya que pueden ser utilizados sin modificaciones importantes en la tecnología de motores de combustión interna. El primer término se refiere a combustibles que pueden ser tanto gaseosos como líquidos y que se producen a partir de electricidad renovable mediante un proceso sintético que consume dióxido de carbono y agua. El segundo se refiere a combustibles producidos a partir de biomasa y residuos orgánicos. Entre los e-fuels, destacan los éteres dimetílicos de oximetileno, y entre los biocombustibles, es particularmente notable el aceite vegetal hidrotratado. Por un lado, los primeros destacan por reducir drásticamente las emisiones contaminantes, aunque presentan problemas como una menor densidad energética y compatibilidad con los motores convencionales cuando se utilizan en estado puro. Por otro lado, el aceite vegetal hidrotratado presenta propiedades similares a las del diésel y se considera un buen sustituto de este a pesar de reducir menos las emisiones contaminantes que los éteres de dimetileno de oximetileno. Sin embargo, ambos combustibles, cuando se producen exclusivamente a partir de recursos renovables, pueden reducir drásticamente la huella de carbon. Otra forma de abordar la reducción de las emisiones contaminantes, que ha proporcionado grandes avances en el pasado, es el diseño de nuevo hardware directamente implicado en el proceso de combustión. Desde geometrías complejas del cuenco del pistón o de toberas de los inyectores hasta nuevos conceptos como la inyección de combustible por conductos para aplicaciones pesadas, que mejoran el proceso de mezcla aire-combustible aumentando la eficiencia y reduciendo la formación de contaminantes. No obstante, es necesario comprender mejor su impacto en el proceso de combustión y en el rendimiento del motor para su correcta aplicación en soluciones commercials. A la luz de lo anterior, la presente tesis se centra en avanzar en el conocimiento del comportamiento de los combustibles alternativos y los nuevos conceptos de hardware en las condiciones de funcionamiento de los motores de encendido por compresión y su impacto en el rendimiento de la combustión y la formación de contaminantes. Estas evaluaciones se realizan tanto mediante simulaciones numéricas detalladas como mediante experimentos llevados a cabo en un motor de encendido por compresión ópticamente accesible, utilizando diversas técnicas ópticas. Los resultados ponen de relieve que estos dos enfoques prometedores pueden reducir en gran medida la formación de contaminantes en el interior del motor de encendido por compresión y pueden ser una solución potencial al problema cada vez mayor de la huella de carbono y las emisiones contaminantes de los motores de encendido por compresión. / [CA] La reducció de la petjada de carboni dels motors de combustió interna així com de les seues emissions contaminants és necessària per a la supervivència d'esta tecnologia, especialment per a aplicacions d'ús mitjà i pesat. En l'última dècada, investigadors i fabricants han explorat diferents enfocaments per a aconseguir este objectiu. En este sentit, l'ús de combustibles alternatius i tecnologies alternatives es considera una via potencial per a aconseguir-ho. Dins de l'àmbit dels combustibles alternatius, els e-fuels i els biocombustibles estan guanyant rellevància, ja que poden ser utilitzats sense modificacions importants en la tecnologia de motors de combustió interna. El primer terme es refereix a combustibles que poden ser tant gasosos com líquids i que es produeixen a partir d'electricitat renovable mitjançant un procés sintètic que consumeix diòxid de carboni i aigua. El segon es refereix a combustibles produïts a partir de biomassa i residus orgànics. Entre els e-fuels, destaquen els èters dimetílics d'oximetilè, i entre els biocombustibles, és particularment notable l'oli vegetal hidrotratat. D'una banda, els primers destaquen per reduir dràsticament les emissions contaminants, encara que presenten problemes com una menor densitat energètica i compatibilitat amb els motors convencionals quan s'utilitzen en estat pur. D'altra banda, l'oli vegetal hidrotratat presenta propietats similars a les del dièsel i es considera un bon substitut d'este malgrat reduir menys les emissions contaminants que els èters dimetílics d'oximetilé. No obstant això, tots dos combustibles, quan es produïxen exclusivament a partir de recursos renovables, poden reduir dràsticament la petjada de carboni. Una altra manera d'abordar la reducció de les emissions contaminants, que ha proporcionat grans avanços en el passat, és el disseny de nou maquinari directament implicat en el procés de combustió. Des de geometries complexes del bol del pistó o de toveres dels injectors fins a nous conceptes com la injecció de combustible per conductes per a aplicacions pesades, que milloren el procés de mescla aïre-combustible augmentant l'eficiència i reduint la formació de contaminants. No obstant això, és necessari comprendre millor el seu impacte en el procés de combustió i en el rendiment del motor per a la seua correcta aplicació en solucions comercials. A la llum de l'anterior, la present tesi se centra en avançar en el coneixement del comportament dels combustibles alternatius i els nous conceptes de maquinari en les condicions de funcionament dels motors d'encesa per compressió i el seu impacte en el rendiment de la combustió i la formació de contaminants. Estes avaluacions es realitzen tant mitjançant simulacions numèriques detallades com mitjançant experiments duts a terme en un motor d'encesa per compressió òpticament accessible, utilitzant diverses tècniques òptiques. Els resultats posen en relleu que estos dos enfocaments prometedors poden reduir en gran manera la formació de contaminants a l'interior del motor d'encesa per compressió i poden ser una solució potencial al problema cada vegada major de la petjada de carboni i les emissions contaminants dels motors d'encesa per compressió. / [EN] The reduction of the carbon footprint of internal combustion engines and the pollutant emissions is mandatory for the survival of this technology, especially for medium and heavy-duty applications. In the last decade, researchers and manufacturers have explored different approaches to achieve this goal. In this sense, the use of alternative fuels and alternative technologies is considered as a potential pathway to reach this objective. Within the scope of alternative fuels, e-fuels and biofuels are gaining relevance as they can be utilized without major modifications of the internal combustion engine technology. The former term refers to fuels that can be both gaseous or liquid and are produced from renewable electricity in a synthetic process consuming carbon dioxide and water. The latter refers to fuels produced from biomass and organic waste. Among e-fuels, oxymethylene dimethyl ethers stand out, and among biofuels, hydrotreated vegetable oil is particularly notable. On the one hand, oxymethylene dimethyl ethers drastically reduce pollutant emissions however suffer challenges like lower energy density, and compatibility with conventional engines when utilized in pure form. On the other hand, hydrotreated vegetable oil presents similar properties as compared to diesel and is considered a good drop in fuel for fossil diesel despite providing a lesser pollutant reduction when compared with oxymethylene dimethyl ethers. However, these fuels, when produced solely from renewable resources, can drastically reduce the carbon footprint. Another way to address pollutant emission reduction, which has provided great advances in the past, is the design of new hardware directly involved with the combustion process. From complex piston bowl geometries or injector nozzles to new concepts like ducted fuel injection for heavy-duty applications, which improves the air-fuel mixing process increasing efficiency and reducing pollutant formation. Nevertheless, a better understanding of their impact on the combustion process and engine performance is required for proper implementation in commercial solutions. In light of the aforementioned text, the current thesis is focused on advancing the knowledge of the behaviour of alternative fuels and new hardware concepts under operating conditions of compression ignition engines and their impact on combustion performance and pollutant formation. These assessments are done both by detailed numerical simulations and experiments carried out in an optically accessible compression ignition engine, utilizing a variety of optical techniques. Results highlight that these two promising approaches can greatly reduce the pollutant formation inside the compression ignition engine and can be a potential solution to the ever-increasing carbon footprint and pollutant emissions problem of compression ignition engines. / The author would like to acknowledge the financial support received through contract UPV - Subprograma 2 (PAID-01-22) del Vicerrectorado de Investigaciòn, which was incremental in the development of this thesis at I.U.I. CMT – Clean Mobility & Thermofluids, Universitat Politècnica de València. Furthermore, author also acknowledges the grant Ayudas Para Movilidad de Estudiantes de Doctorado de la Universitat Politècnica de València - 2022, which made his research stay possible at Sandia National Laboratories. / Khalid, UB. (2024). Numerical and Optical Assessment of Different Solutions for Pollutant Emission Reduction in Compression Ignition Engines [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207524