La leucémie myéloïde chronique (LMC) est un syndrome myéloprolifératif clonal initié par l’activité tyrosine kinase de l’oncoprotéine de fusion BCR-ABL dans une cellule souche hématopoïétique (CSH) très primitive et caractérisée par une instabilité génétique responsable de l’évolution clonale de la maladie. Les mécanismes de survie, d’autorenouvellement et ceux de la progression vers une phase de leucémie aigüe sont difficilement modélisables dans les CSH primaires de patients. La technologie des IPSC ; permettant de reprogrammer les cellules leucémiques à un état pluripotent ; pourrait permettre de générer in vitro des progéniteurs et des cellules leucémiques très primitives, dont l’évolution biologique pourrait être séquentiellement analysée. Dans ce but, nous avons généré une lignée IPSC à partir des cellules leucémiques d’un patient atteint de LMC. Nous avons montré que la lignée IPSC différenciée en hémangioblastes ou en progéniteurs hématopoïétiques présente un potentiel clonogénique accru. Ce potentiel est modulable sous l’action de l’imatinib mesylate ; qui inhibe l’autophosphorylation de BCR-ABL et celle de la protéine CRK-L ; mais également par la manipulation pharmacologique de la voie AHR impliquée dans la quiescence des CSH. En utilisant une stratégie de mutagénèse in vitro, nous avons montré la possibilté d’exacerber le potentiel hématopoietique des cellules hématopoïétiques dérivées des iPSC leucémiques. Les iPSC analysées après traitement par l’agent mutagène ENU présentent des anomalies cytologiques et cytogénétiques additionnelles reminiscentes de la phase blastiques de la maladie. Les analyses moléculaires par aCGH ont permis d’identifier dans les cellules hématopoïétiques dérivées d’IPSC traités par ENU, une signature moléculaire compatible avec celle décrite dans les cellules blastiques de patients. L’ensemble de nos résultats suggèrent qu’il est possible de modéliser certains aspects de la LMC ; notamment un phénotype myéloprolifératif ; et de génerer un modèle de progression blastique in vitro à partir des iPSC leucémiques, permettant ainsi d’identifier de nouveaux biomarquers prédictifs de progression tumorale ou le criblage de médicaments. / Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a clonal myeloproliferative malignancy initiated by tyrosine kinase activity of the fusion oncoprotein BCR-ABL in very primitive hematopoietic stem cell and characterized by a genetic instability leading to clonal progression. Mechanisms of survival, self-renewal and progression of the disease are difficult to model using primary leukemic cells. The use of iPSC technology could allow reprogramming of leukemic cells to pluripotency with generation of primitive leukemic cells whose evolution can be sequentially analyzed. For this purpose, we generated an IPSC cell line from the leukemic cells of a CML patient and analyzed the possibility to generate a myeloproliferative phenotype. We have shown that this iPSC exhibits an increased hematopoietic potential either via EB or Blast-CFC generation. This potential can be modulated by the action of imatinib, inhibiting autophosphorylation of BCR-ABL and that of CRKL. We show that hematopoietic potential of CML iPSC can also be modulated by using AHR antagonists, which allow further amplification of hematopoietic cells. To evaluate the possibility of generating a clonal progression model in vitro, we have used a mutagenesis strategy. CML iPSC treated by ENU for several weeks generated hematopoietic cells with increased efficiency. These cells showed evidence of cytological and cytogenetic abnormalities reminiscent of a blast crisis. aCGH analyses of hematopoietic cells generated revealed genomic abnormalities described in CML blast crisis and a molecular signature compatible with blast crisis described in CML patients. These results suggest the feasibility of using patient specific iPSC for modeling CML blast crisis, which could be used for discovery of novel biomarkers and drug screening.

Le syndrome de Brugada est un trouble du rythme cardiaque héréditaire qui mène à l’apparition de fibrillations ventriculaires et à la mort subite cardiaque. Seulement 30% des cas atteints de ce syndrome sont liés à des mutations génétiques et ce à cause de la complexité du phénotype engendré. Le gène RRAD a été identifié dans une famille qui compte 5 membres atteints du syndrome de Brugada, tous porteurs du variant p.R211H. Ce gène code pour la protéine G monomérique Rad dont le rôle principal est de réguler le courant calcique de type L dans les cellules musculaires squelettiques et cardiaques. Cette étude associe trois modèles d’étude visant à discriminer l’implication de Rad dans le phénotype des patients atteints : Un modèle de surexpression pour étudier le rôle de Rad et l’impact de sa surexpression sur l’activité électrique et la structure des cardiomyocytes, des cardiomyocytes dérivés de cellules IPS reprogrammées des patients porteurs de la mutation pour en déterminer le phénotype cellulaire, et un modèle de souris knock in pour la mutation p.R211H généré dans le but d’intégrer le phénotype cellulaire à l’échelle de l’organe entier. Les résultats obtenus sur les trois modèles, montrent que Rad R211H provoque des troubles au niveau de l’activité électrique du coeur mais aussi au niveau de la structure des cellules différenciées et ces troubles se traduisent par des anomalies à l’ECG chez la souris. Cette étude est la première à démontrer l’implication de Rad GTPase dans le syndrome de Brugada et la seule à démontrer, à ce jour, des perturbations du cytosquelette dans cette pathologie qui est toujours considérée comme une pathologie exclusivement rythmique. / Brugada syndrome (BrS) is a rare inherited cardiac disorder linked to high risk of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. In the present day, only 30% of BrS cases have known genetic causes. Most of these mutations have been identified in the SCN5A gene that encodes the cardiac voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.5. We identified a rare variant in the RRAD gene encoding for the small G protein Rad GTPase, in a familial case of BrS. The aim of this work was to elucidate the mechanisms by which the RRAD p.R211H variant could lead to BrS. First, an overexpressing model was developed using neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes to define the involvement of Rad in the electrical function of cardiomyocytes. Then, cardiac cells were derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells reprogrammed from the carriers of the Rad mutation in order to investigate the phenotype induced at the cellular level. Furthermore, a knock in mouse has been generated to study the impact of this same mutation on the organ level. The three models summarized in a complementary way the phenotype caused by the Rad mutation on the electrical activity at the cellular and the organ levels. The mutation seem to trigger structural defects in the cardiomyocytes that can be involved in the electrical defects related to the disease. The present study is the first report of the potential link between Rad GTPase and BrS. The phenotype reported recapitulates the classical electrophysiological signature of the disease but also associates cytoskeleton disturbances.

Inherited cardiomyopathies are a set of pathological conditions that impact the structure and function of the heart. There are over 1,000 cardiomyopathy-causing mutations in genes encoding structural proteins in heart muscle cells, known as cardiomyocytes. The advents of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and CRISPR/Cas9 technologies have opened a viable path for creating in vitro models to investigate therapeutic strategies for cardiac pathologies. However, hiPSC-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) remain immature, limiting their capabilities to fully recapitulate disease phenotypes. Here, we report the variability in hiPSC-CM studies and discuss paths toward unification in hiPSC-CM model development, maturation, and assessment that we believe will drive progress in engineering mature cardiac tissue. We then utilized some of these models to investigate phenotypes of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), showing that a beta-myosin heavy chain (MYH7) mutation leads to increased cell size, sarcomere content, contractility, mitochondria expression, and paracrine signaling of cardiomyocytes. While effects of HCM-causing mutations on cardiomyocyte function have been well-studied, it remains unclear how these mutations lead to a common HCM phenotype, fibrosis. Here, we used engineered cardiac microtissues (CMTs) comprised of MYH7-variant hiPSC-CMs and wild-type stromal cells, to dissect the multi-cellular interactions responsible for fibrosis. HCM-variant CMTs exhibited increased collagen deposition and tissue stiffening, resulting in a decrease in tissue contractility dependent on stromal cell proliferation. We show that this activation is paracrine driven through EGFR signaling and that EGF has synergistic effects with a well-known fibrosis mediator, TGF-β. Overall, our studies present a better understanding of how HCM-causing mutations impact cardiomyocyte function and how these changes impact stromal cell response leading to further disease progression. / 2024-08-29T00:00:00Z

A produção de células-tronco induzidas (iPSC) a partir de fibroblasto fetal canino abre caminhos para a obtenção de células pluripotentes e o estudo de sua aplicabilidade para terapias alternativas na medicina veterinária. Neste contexto, este trabalho investigou metodologias adequadas avaliando a eficiência destas, para a produção de células-tronco pluripotentes no modelo canino in vitro (CTE-like), uma vez que a produção de células-tronco embrionárias verdadeiras, cultivadas a partir da MCI de blastocistos, ainda não foi completamente caracterizada em animais domésticos. Os experimentos visaram o aumento do conhecimento de fatores envolvidos no processo de reprogramação em cães, bem como a produção de tais linhagens e sua completa caracterização. No primeiro experimento, foi comparada a infecção retroviral, já padronizada por diversos grupos, com a reprogramação epissomal, inédita para a espécie, na tentativa de induzir células à pluripotência sem a integração viral, e ainda, estratégias para o aumento da eficiência de reprogramação, onde o plasmídeo epissomal foi somado a fatores de transcrição. A reprogramação epissomal gerou colônias quando acrescida do fator c-MYC, que provavelmente, aumentou a proliferação destas células produzindo colônias iPS com morfologia típica e positivas para o teste da fosfatase alcalina. Tais resultados, ainda preliminares pra conclusões, são essenciais para o processo de obtenção de linhagens sem a integração viral, aumentando a aplicabilidade na terapia celular. No segundo experimento objetivou-se avaliar os fatores OCT4 e SOX2 associados a proteínas repórteres. Os fibroblastos que receberam estes fatores, foram analisados por citometria de fluxo, permitindo a avaliação da influência de cada fator no processo de reprogramação, além de permitir a separação (sorting) das células que integraram o gene, aumentando a eficiência de reprogramação e o conhecimento biológico dos mecanismos de integração rastreados por uma proteína repórter. A análise por microscopia de fluorescência revelou que a distribuição de proteínas repórteres foi semelhante entre as duas diferentes construções proteicas e que não se restringe a uma região da célula em particular. OCT4 e SOX2 mostraram uma elevada expressão exógena de cada gene alvo, bem como células dupla positivas. No entanto, nenhuma interação foi observada pelo menos 6 dias após a transdução. O último capítulo experimental descreveu o mecanismo de reprogramação por integração lentiviral para indução da pluripotência em fibroblastos fetais de cão. As linhagens obtidas e completamente caracterizadas neste estudo foram independentes de LIF ou qualquer outra suplementação com inibidores, resistentes ao repique enzimático (Tryple Express), sendo apenas bFGF dependentes. Foram obtidas 66 linhagens clonais, das quais 10 (7 h+mOSKM e 3hOSKM) se mantiveram por 15 ou mais passagens e foram utilizadas para todos os testes de caracterização in vitro, com eficiência máxima de reprogramação de 0,001%. Todas as colônias foram positivas para o teste da fosfatase alcalina, bem como formaram corpos embrióides e se diferenciaram de forma espontânea, além de expressarem altos níveis dos fatores endógenos OCT4 e SOX2. In vivo, as colônias foram capazes de desenvolver tumor 120 dias após a inoculação (confirmado por análise histopatológica) comprovando sua origem predominantemente mesodérmica. A integridade cromossomal das linhagens foi avaliada por hidridização FISH, que não evidenciou qualquer tipo de anomalia. A completa caracterização de tais linhagens, bem como os experimentos não integrativos e com fatores associados a proteínas repórteres, aumentam o conhecimento da tecnologia de reprogramação, estabelecendo novas estratégias para indução da pluripotência de forma mais eficaz e segura para seu uso em testes clínicos e terapia celular / The production of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from canine fetal fibroblast opens new ways for obtaining pluripotent cells and study its applicability for alternative therapies in veterinary medicine. In this context, this study investigated appropriate methods for producing pluripotent stem cells using a in vitro canine model (ESC-like), so far the production of true embryonic stem cells from ICM cultured blastocysts has not been fully characterized in domestic animals. The experiments aimed at increasing knowledge of the factors involved in reprogramming process in dogs, as well as the production of such strains and complete characterization. In the first experiment, a retroviral infection was compared to episomal reprogramming (never done for this specie) in an attempt to induce cells to pluripotency state without viral integration, also to observe the development of cells receiving separately the episomal plasmid plus transcription factors. The generation of colonies was possible only in the episomal plus c-MYC factor group, leading to increased cell proliferation producing iPS colonies with typical morphology and positive for the alkaline phosphatase detection. These results, so far as preliminary conclusions, are essential to obtaining strains without viral integration, increasing its applicability for clinical cell therapy. In the second experiment, we aimed to evaluate the OCT4 and SOX2 factors associated with fluorescent reporter proteins. These were analyzed by flow cytometry allowing the performance evaluation of each factor on the reprogramming process the fluorescence activated separation of cells containing the integrated gene, increasing the enriching the efficiency of reprogramming. Fluorescence microscopy analysis showed that the distribution of reporter protein was similar between the two different protein structures and not restricted to a particular cell region. OCT4 and SOX2 showed a high exogenous expression of each target gene, and double positive cells. However, no colony formation was observed at least 6 days after transduction. The last experimental chapter aimed to described the reprogramming mechanism of lentiviral integration to induce pluripotency in dog fetal fibroblasts. The lines obtained were fully characterized in this study, showing independency of LIF or any other supplemental inhibitors, resistance to enzymatic process (Tryple Express) and bFGF dependency only. A total of 66 clonal strains were obtained (hOSKM and h+mOSKM) while 10 (7 h+m and 3h) were maintained for 15 or more passages and used for in vitro characterization tests, with maximum efficiency of reprogramming 0.001% . All colonies were positive for the alkaline phosphatase detection, embryoid bodies formation, spontaneously differentiated and expressed high levels of endogenous OCT4 and SOX2. In vivo, the colonies were able to developed tumors 120 days after inoculation (confirmed via histopathology analysis), with predominantly mesodermal tissues. Chromosomal evaluations were made by FISH hybridization showing no chromosomal abnormality in iPSCs canine lines. The fully characterization of such lines as well as non-integrated experiments and factors associated via reporter proteins increases the knowledge of the iPSCs technology, establishing new strategies for more efficient and safe induction of pluripotency for potential use in cell therapy and clinical trials

A produção de células-tronco induzidas (iPSC) a partir de fibroblasto fetal canino abre caminhos para a obtenção de células pluripotentes e o estudo de sua aplicabilidade para terapias alternativas na medicina veterinária. Neste contexto, este trabalho investigou metodologias adequadas avaliando a eficiência destas, para a produção de células-tronco pluripotentes no modelo canino in vitro (CTE-like), uma vez que a produção de células-tronco embrionárias verdadeiras, cultivadas a partir da MCI de blastocistos, ainda não foi completamente caracterizada em animais domésticos. Os experimentos visaram o aumento do conhecimento de fatores envolvidos no processo de reprogramação em cães, bem como a produção de tais linhagens e sua completa caracterização. No primeiro experimento, foi comparada a infecção retroviral, já padronizada por diversos grupos, com a reprogramação epissomal, inédita para a espécie, na tentativa de induzir células à pluripotência sem a integração viral, e ainda, estratégias para o aumento da eficiência de reprogramação, onde o plasmídeo epissomal foi somado a fatores de transcrição. A reprogramação epissomal gerou colônias quando acrescida do fator c-MYC, que provavelmente, aumentou a proliferação destas células produzindo colônias iPS com morfologia típica e positivas para o teste da fosfatase alcalina. Tais resultados, ainda preliminares pra conclusões, são essenciais para o processo de obtenção de linhagens sem a integração viral, aumentando a aplicabilidade na terapia celular. No segundo experimento objetivou-se avaliar os fatores OCT4 e SOX2 associados a proteínas repórteres. Os fibroblastos que receberam estes fatores, foram analisados por citometria de fluxo, permitindo a avaliação da influência de cada fator no processo de reprogramação, além de permitir a separação (sorting) das células que integraram o gene, aumentando a eficiência de reprogramação e o conhecimento biológico dos mecanismos de integração rastreados por uma proteína repórter. A análise por microscopia de fluorescência revelou que a distribuição de proteínas repórteres foi semelhante entre as duas diferentes construções proteicas e que não se restringe a uma região da célula em particular. OCT4 e SOX2 mostraram uma elevada expressão exógena de cada gene alvo, bem como células dupla positivas. No entanto, nenhuma interação foi observada pelo menos 6 dias após a transdução. O último capítulo experimental descreveu o mecanismo de reprogramação por integração lentiviral para indução da pluripotência em fibroblastos fetais de cão. As linhagens obtidas e completamente caracterizadas neste estudo foram independentes de LIF ou qualquer outra suplementação com inibidores, resistentes ao repique enzimático (Tryple Express), sendo apenas bFGF dependentes. Foram obtidas 66 linhagens clonais, das quais 10 (7 h+mOSKM e 3hOSKM) se mantiveram por 15 ou mais passagens e foram utilizadas para todos os testes de caracterização in vitro, com eficiência máxima de reprogramação de 0,001%. Todas as colônias foram positivas para o teste da fosfatase alcalina, bem como formaram corpos embrióides e se diferenciaram de forma espontânea, além de expressarem altos níveis dos fatores endógenos OCT4 e SOX2. In vivo, as colônias foram capazes de desenvolver tumor 120 dias após a inoculação (confirmado por análise histopatológica) comprovando sua origem predominantemente mesodérmica. A integridade cromossomal das linhagens foi avaliada por hidridização FISH, que não evidenciou qualquer tipo de anomalia. A completa caracterização de tais linhagens, bem como os experimentos não integrativos e com fatores associados a proteínas repórteres, aumentam o conhecimento da tecnologia de reprogramação, estabelecendo novas estratégias para indução da pluripotência de forma mais eficaz e segura para seu uso em testes clínicos e terapia celular / The production of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from canine fetal fibroblast opens new ways for obtaining pluripotent cells and study its applicability for alternative therapies in veterinary medicine. In this context, this study investigated appropriate methods for producing pluripotent stem cells using a in vitro canine model (ESC-like), so far the production of true embryonic stem cells from ICM cultured blastocysts has not been fully characterized in domestic animals. The experiments aimed at increasing knowledge of the factors involved in reprogramming process in dogs, as well as the production of such strains and complete characterization. In the first experiment, a retroviral infection was compared to episomal reprogramming (never done for this specie) in an attempt to induce cells to pluripotency state without viral integration, also to observe the development of cells receiving separately the episomal plasmid plus transcription factors. The generation of colonies was possible only in the episomal plus c-MYC factor group, leading to increased cell proliferation producing iPS colonies with typical morphology and positive for the alkaline phosphatase detection. These results, so far as preliminary conclusions, are essential to obtaining strains without viral integration, increasing its applicability for clinical cell therapy. In the second experiment, we aimed to evaluate the OCT4 and SOX2 factors associated with fluorescent reporter proteins. These were analyzed by flow cytometry allowing the performance evaluation of each factor on the reprogramming process the fluorescence activated separation of cells containing the integrated gene, increasing the enriching the efficiency of reprogramming. Fluorescence microscopy analysis showed that the distribution of reporter protein was similar between the two different protein structures and not restricted to a particular cell region. OCT4 and SOX2 showed a high exogenous expression of each target gene, and double positive cells. However, no colony formation was observed at least 6 days after transduction. The last experimental chapter aimed to described the reprogramming mechanism of lentiviral integration to induce pluripotency in dog fetal fibroblasts. The lines obtained were fully characterized in this study, showing independency of LIF or any other supplemental inhibitors, resistance to enzymatic process (Tryple Express) and bFGF dependency only. A total of 66 clonal strains were obtained (hOSKM and h+mOSKM) while 10 (7 h+m and 3h) were maintained for 15 or more passages and used for in vitro characterization tests, with maximum efficiency of reprogramming 0.001% . All colonies were positive for the alkaline phosphatase detection, embryoid bodies formation, spontaneously differentiated and expressed high levels of endogenous OCT4 and SOX2. In vivo, the colonies were able to developed tumors 120 days after inoculation (confirmed via histopathology analysis), with predominantly mesodermal tissues. Chromosomal evaluations were made by FISH hybridization showing no chromosomal abnormality in iPSCs canine lines. The fully characterization of such lines as well as non-integrated experiments and factors associated via reporter proteins increases the knowledge of the iPSCs technology, establishing new strategies for more efficient and safe induction of pluripotency for potential use in cell therapy and clinical trials

Les processus moléculaires mis en jeu lors de maladies de surcharge lysosomale (MSL) et qui conduisent à des dysfonctions neuronales sont peu connus. Afin de mieux comprendre comment s’opèrent ces dysfonctions neuronales associées à la mucopolysaccharidose de type VII (MPS VII), une MSL causée par la déficience en l’activité enzymatique de la ß-glucuronidase, nous avons généré des neurones humains MPS VII à partir cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPSC). Grâce à la reprogrammation des fibroblastes de patients MPS VII, nous avons généré et caractérisé des neuroprécurseurs dérivés d’iPSC (NSC) et des neurones. Les iPSC MPS VII ont été positives pour les tests de pluripotence (activité de la phosphatase alcaline, expression des marqueurs de pluripotence SSEA3, TRA-2-49 et Nanog par immunofluorescence et expression des gènes de pluripotence SOX2, Oct4 et Lin28 par qRT-PCR, formation des corps embryonnaires et génération de cellules dérivées des trois feuillets embryonnaires in vivo par la formation de tératomes) et présentaient un caryotype normal. Les NSC dérivés d’iPSC exprimaient les marqueurs Nestin et SOX2, et ont été utilisés pour générer des neurones. Les neurones MPS VII exprimaient des marqueurs neuronaux comme MAP2, formaient des synapses et présentaient une activité calcium-dépendante.Afin d’identifier les dysfonctions moléculaires présentes dans la MPS VII, nous avons comparé les NSC et les neurones, avec ou sans milieu conditionné contenant l’enzyme recombinante humaine de la ß-glucuronidase (rhGUS), enzyme actuellement utilisée en phase 1/2, de chez Ultragenyx. Cette enzyme est internalisée par les cellules, rejoint leurs lysosomes et corrige les dysfonctions lysosomales de la MPS VII, restaurant ainsi un phénotype cellulaire physiologique (phénomène aussi appelé ‘enzyme replacement therapy’ (ERT)). Ces diverses conditions nous permettent d’éviter la variabilité clonale des iPSC, et de mieux identifier les déficiences neuronales, corrigées par l’ERT, qui sont associées à la MPS VII. / The molecular pathways linking lysosomal storage diseases (LSD) to neuronal dysfunction are poorly understood. To better understand neuronal dysfunction associated with mucopolysaccharidosis type VII (MPS VII), a LSD due to deficiency in ß-glucuronidase activity, we generated human MPS VII neurons from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). Starting from MPS VII patient fibroblasts, iPSC-derived neural stem cells (NSC) and neurons were generated and characterized. MPS VII iPSC were positive for pluripotency tests (alkaline phosphatase activity, expression of pluripotency markers SSEA3, TRA-2-49 and Nanog by immunostaining and pluripotency gene SOX2, Oct4 and Lin28 expression by qRT-PCR, embryonic bodies formation and generation of cells derivated from the three germ layers in vivo by teratoma formation) and had a normal karyotype. IPSC-derived NSC expressed the markers Nestin and SOX2, and were used to generate neurons. MPS VII neurons expressed mature neuronal markers as MAP2, formed synapses and displayed a calcium-dependent activity. To identify molecular defects in MPS VII, we compared NSC and neurons, with or without conditioned medium containing a recombinant human ß-glucuronidase (rhGUS), enzyme currently used in phase 1/2, from Ultragenyx. This enzyme is taken up by cells, reaches their lysosoms and corrects MPS VII lysosoms dysfunctions, restoring cells to healthy phenotype (phenomena also called enzyme replacement therapy (ERT)). Our assays allow us to circumvent clonal variability associated with iPSC, and to better identify neuronal defects, corrected by ERT, which are associated with MPS VII disease.

Les mutations affectant la fonction d'enzymes impliquées dans le cycle des purines sont responsables d'une multitude de syndromes pédiatriques, caractérisés par des atteintes neurologiques et comportementales. A ce jour, aucune stratégie thérapeutique n'a été réellement efficace pour contrôler ces symptômes. La maladie de Lesch-Nyhan (MLN), associée à la perte de fonction de l'enzyme de recyclage HGPRT, constitue un bon modèle d'étude. Mon travail a consisté à utiliser la technologie des cellules souches induites à la pluripotence, reprogrammées à partir de fibroblastes de patients atteints des formes sévères de la MLN, pour identifier des phénotypes neuronaux associés à la perte de fonction de l'HGPRT. Ces marqueurs phénotypiques ont ensuite été utilisés pour identifier, par une approche de criblage à haut débit, de nouvelles molécules chimiques capables de corriger ces défauts. Plus de 3000 molécules ont été testées et 6 composés, tous dérivés de l'adénosine, ont pu être identifiés comme compensant le métabolisme par un mécanisme d'action indépendant de l'HGPRT. De manière intéressante, un des composés, la S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) a par le passé déjà démontré des effets bénéfiques sur les symptômes comportementaux typiques de la MLN dans plusieurs études de cas. Cela démontre que la stratégie abordée ici a permis l'identification de cibles thérapeutiques permettant d'améliorer les symptômes neurospychiatriques de cette pathologie et constitue un modèle réplicable pour différentes pathologies touchant le métabolisme cérébral. / Mutations in genes coding for enzymes involved in purine synthesis or recycling lead to dramatic neurological conditions with poor pharmacological options. Lesch–Nyhan disease (LND) is caused by deficiency of the salvage pathway enzyme HGPRT that compromises recycling of guanine and hypoxanthine into GMP and IMP. LND is characterized by severe neuropsychiatric symptoms that are out of reach of pharmacological treatments. Here we use human cortical neural stem cells and neurons derived from iPSC of children affected by severe forms of LND to identify neural phenotypes associated with HGPRT-deficiency and of interest to develop a target-agnostic based drug screening system. We screened more than 3000 molecules and identified 6 compounds, all possessing an adenosine moiety, that corrected LND related neuronal phenotypes by promoting metabolism compensations in a HGPRT-independent manner. One of these compound, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), has already been reported as providing amelioration of behavioral symptoms in some LND cases, demonstrating that our screening allowed the identification of pathways that can be relevant therapeutic targets to ease the devastating neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with this pathology. Interestingly, these pathways can be activated in LND patients via simple food supplementation. This experimental paradigm can also be easily adapted to other purine associated neurological disorders affecting normal brain development.

Understanding the processes that control the formation of blood (haematopoiesis), and blood vessels (vasculogenesis and angiogenesis) in vivo has huge clinical importance. The complex three-dimensional architecture of blood vessels is dynamic and aberrant regulation of either the growth or function of the vascular system may potentiate the spread of tumours, resulting in failure of physiological processes such as implantation and placental development, leading to a range of angiogenesis associated disorders for example diabetic retinopathy. Both embryonic and adult haematopoiesis are also three-dimensional, dynamic processes in which deregulation may result in blood disorders or leukaemia. The experiments herein describe my contribution to investigations into the molecular mechanisms involved in haematopoiesis and angiogenesis over a period of approximately 15 years, taking advantage of technical advances as they became available and adapting them to specific cell models. For example, microarray technology has facilitated discovery of new pathways and transcripts implicated in normal and pathological angiogenesis; central to this mechanism is the role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a mitogen specific to endothelial cells. Chromosome immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technology subsequently revealed pathways of early mesoderm formation and the importance of gastrulation in this process. Transcriptional targets of the T-box transcription factor Brachyury were subsequently determined. Throughout this work, the human female reproductive tract provided a unique resource, as one of the rare sites of physiological angiogenesis with which to investigate endothelial cell biology and haematopoiesis. Embryonic stem cell-derived embryoid bodies subsequently proved to be an excellent model for the study of early blood vessel development in three dimensions (2003-5), and to follow early mesoderm development (2006-2010). Targets of Brachyury revealed the close association between blood vessel development, haematopoiesis and early mesoderm formation via a common haemangioblast precursor for blood and endothelial cell lineages. Data gathered by myself, and colleagues, from gene expression and transcription factor analysis is now being used to create lineage codes or routemaps for differentiation of stem cells to mature cells in-vitro and it is now possible to produce mature megakaryocytes and erythrocytes in vitro. The current challenge is to produce fully functional human platelets and enucleated red blood cells. Combined with the use of autologous induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) this makes patientspecific tailoring of cell-based therapies a real possibility.

In 2006, Kazutoshi Takahashi and Shinya Yamanaka demonstrated the ability of four transcription factors; Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc to 'reprogram' differentiated somatic cells to a pluripotent state. This technology holds huge potential in the field of regenerative medicine, but reprogramming also a model system by which to the common regulators of all forced cell identity changes, for example, transdifferentiation. Despite this, the mechanism underlying reprogramming remains poorly understood and the efficiency of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) generation, inefficient. One powerful method for elucidating the gene components influencing a biological process, such as reprogramming, is screening for a phenotype of interest using genome-wide mutant libraries. Historically, large-scale knockout screens have been challenging to perform in diploid mammalian genomes, while other screening technologies such as RNAi can be disadvantaged by variable knockdown of target transcripts and off-target effects. Components of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and associated Cas proteins (CRISPR-Cas) prokaryote adaptive immunity systems have recently been adapted to edit genomic sequences at high efficiency in mammalian systems. Furthermore, the application of CRISPR-Cas components to perform proofof- principle genome-wide KO screens has been successfully demonstrated. I have utilised the CRISPR-Cas9 system to perform genome-wide loss-of-function screening in the context of murine iPSC reprogramming, identifying 18 novel inhibitors of reprogramming, in addition to four known inhibitors, Trp53, Cdkn1a, Jun, Dot1l and Gtf2i. Understanding how these novel reprogramming roadblocks function to inhibit the reprogramming process will provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underpinning forced cell identity changes.

Introduction Retinitis Pigmentosa affects 1 in 3000 people in the UK, causing photoreceptor degeneration and premature blindness. Mutations in the X-linked RPGR gene cause 20% of all disease and result in a particularly severe form of disease. The function of RPGR is unknown and it has no treatment. Methods Conflicting evidence from animal studies led me to develop a novel model for human disease with which to test the hypothesis that RPGR acts to regulate actin turnover in the photoreceptor connecting cilium. Skin biopsies were performed on patients with RPGR mutations and unaffected relatives. Subsequent fibroblast cultures were reprogrammed to generate induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines. A retinal differentiation protocol was optimised, resulting in healthy and RPGR-mutant in vitro photoreceptor cultures. Results Cultures were compared. RPGR-mutant iPSC-derived photoreceptors had increased actin polymerisation compared to wild-type control. Unbiased and hypothesis-driven experiments highlighted dysregulation of several key phospho-proteins involved in regulating actin turnover. Notably the RAC-PAK-LIMK-COFILIN pathway was dysregulated in RPGR-mutant cultures. A regulator of this pathway is the actin binding and severing protein, GELSOLIN. GELSOLIN activity was found to be perturbed in RPGR-mutant cultures. Examination of bovine retinal lysate showed an interaction between Rpgr and Gelsolin. Subsequent examination of iPSC-derived human photoreceptor cultures showed compromised interaction in RPGR-mutant cultures compared to controls. An Rpgr knock out mouse was obtained and characterised. Increased actin polymerisation in the connecting cilium and rhodopsin mislocalisation to the inner segment was seen prior to retinal degeneration. Gelsolin activity was perturbed. A Gelsolin knock out mouse was obtained and characterized. It, too, showed rhodopsin mislocalisation and retinal degeneration. Conclusion Results in this thesis confirm the hypothesis that RPGR acts to regulate actin turnover in the photoreceptor. Further, it suggests a mechanism through which this occurs. Further work is required to assess the extent of RPGR’s role in actin regulation in vivo.