A fronte della frammentarietà e della confusione semantica della città contemporanea, la ricerca sui ‘Luoghi di identità e spazi del sacro nella città europea contemporanea’ ha inteso affrontare il tema della morfologia urbana in termini di significato. La focalizzazione sui temi dell’identità e del sacro nella città odierna è stata intesa quale modalità per tentare di andare alla radice dell’irrisolto problema di mancanza di senso che affligge la compagine urbana contemporanea e per cercare di individuare le cause e, quindi, le possibili azioni necessarie a riportare il costruito nell’ambito della relazione significante. Il campo di indagine è quello delle aree periferiche europee, ma la ricerca si muove da considerazioni di ordine generale relativamente alle reti di relazioni che l’essere umano instaura con il mondo circostante. Il lavoro sviluppa un primo inquadramento del tema di carattere generale, con un riferimento sistematico alla letteratura scientifica, individuando attraverso un sintetico excursus storico, i principi fondamentali della costruzione dell’immagine spaziale e del suo evolversi nel tempo. Su questa base i tre concetti di ‘centralità’, ‘identità’ e ‘sacro’, sono intesi come i cardini del discorso circa gli ambiti di significato e, sulla base di studi di alcune esperienze europee ritenute particolarmente esemplificative, la trattazione di questi tre temi arriva a proporre alcune considerazioni in merito alle caratteristiche che il contesto urbano deve avere per manifestarsi come luogo di costruzione di una identità personale e comunitaria. Nella consapevolezza che l’ampiezza dei temi considerati non ne consente una trattazione esaustiva, le considerazioni fatte sono da intendersi quali spunti di riflessione a riguardo dei metodi e delle modalità di relazione che sono ritenute necessarie per la costruzione di spazi di riferimento orientativo, identitario e socializzante.

This research focuses on the definition of the complex relationship that exists between theory and project, which - in the architectural work by Oswald Mathias Ungers - is based on several essays and on the publications that - though they have never been collected in an organic text - make up an articulated corpus, so that it is possible to consider it as the foundations of a theory. More specifically, this thesis deals with the role of metaphor in Unger’s theory and its subsequent practical application to his projects. The path leading from theoretical analysis to architectural project is in Ungers’ view a slow and mediated path, where theory is an instrument without which it would not be possible to create the project's foundations. The metaphor is a figure of speech taken from disciplines such as philosophy, aesthetics, linguistics. Using a metaphor implies a transfer of meaning, as it is essentially based on the replacement of a real object with a figurative one. The research is articulated in three parts, each of them corresponding to a text by Ungers that is considered as crucial to understand the development of his architectural thinking. Each text marks three decades of Ungers’ work: the sixties, seventies and eighties. The first part of the research deals with the topic of Großform expressed by Ungers in his publication of 1966 Grossformen im Wohnungsbau, where he defines four criteria based on which architecture identifies with a Großform. One of the hypothesis underlying this study is that there is a relationship between the notion of Großform and the figure of metaphor. The second part of the thesis analyzes the time between the end of the sixties and the seventies, i.e. the time during which Ungers lived in the USA and taught at the Cornell University of Ithaca. The analysis focuses on the text Entwerfen und Denken in Vorstellungen, Metaphern und Analogien, written by Ungers in 1976, for the exhibition MAN transFORMS organized in the Cooper - Hewitt Museum in New York. This text, through which Ungers creates a sort of vocabulary to explain the notions of metaphor, analogy, signs, symbols and allegories, can be defined as the Manifesto of his architectural theory, the latter being strictly intertwined with the metaphor as a design instrument and which is best expressed when he introduces the 11 thesis with P. Koolhaas, P. Riemann, H. Kollhoff and A. Ovaska in Die Stadt in der Stadt in 1977. Berlin das grüne Stadtarchipel. The third part analyzes the indissoluble tie between the use of metaphor and the choice of the topic on which the project is based and, starting from Ungers’ publication in 1982 Architecture as theme, the relationship between idea/theme and image/metaphor is explained. Playing with shapes requires metaphoric thinking, i.e. taking references to create new ideas from the world of shapes and not just from architecture. The metaphor as a tool to interpret reality becomes for Ungers an inquiry method that precedes a project and makes it possible to define the theme on which the project will be based. In Ungers’ case, the architecture of ideas matches the idea of architecture; for Ungers the notions of idea and theme, image and metaphor cannot be separated from each other, the text on thematization of architecture is not a report of his projects, but it represents the need to put them in order and highlight the theme on which they are based.

Abstract This PhD thesis focuses on two projects carried out by Oswald Mathias Ungers in the city of Trier. More specifi cally, this study focuses on the relationship between composition principles, architectural forms, historical context and the nature of the city where these buildings have been built. The works carried out by Ungers in Trier are unique experiences - if taken in this master’s works context - and each one of them refl ects - in its specifi c project and architectural composition theme - the results - in terms of design - of a complex research on the fundamentals of architecture carried out by Ungers in more than fi ve decades of his activity. The theoretical and compositional experiment aspect is one of the main subjects to defi ne these buildings in terms of architecture. This aspect is so crucial that it is possible to consider them as an example of radical and specifi c experiences, referred to a specifi c place and based on a specifi c theoretical corpus. More specifi cally, this study focuses on the design activity carried out by Ungers in this city, mainly between the 80s and 90s and in the fi rst decade of the 21st century. It puts forward an interpretation that does not only defi ne the essential features, elements and questions lying behind these two architectures, but fi rst and foremost analyzes the theoretical, methodological and compositional relationship between Ungers and Trier, his adopted city. An increasingly closer relationship between the architect and his city highlights the wider relationship network established between the place and the projects carried out by Ungers in this city and makes it possible to understand the importance of Trier in the work of this architect, in his education and in his way to see, think and make architecture. The projects analyzed - the Thermen am Forum Museum (1988-1996) and the Kaiserthermen entrance hall (2003-2007) - were analyzed in terms of their architectural composition in an attempt to highlight the poetry of these architectures and to fi nd out their progressive, rational - and therefore transmissible - character. This study is an attempt to assess and unveil the compositional themes characterizing these projects while detecting the compositional principles lying behind the works and verifying the design process through which such principles were translated into architecture. Looking at these works as architectural composition examples makes it possible to clarify Ungers’ hermeneutic relationship established with the city’s history and structure. More specifi cally, the main subject of this thesis is the relationship between the architect, his city and history in the architectural solutions offered by two exemplary case studies, which were both built and placed in the historical city center of Trier and both connected with the ancient core of the city. The Thermen am Forum Museum and the Kaiserthermen entrance hall projects are - though being developed at different times of Ungers’ architectural life and though being extremely different in terms of approach to their context, due to their architectural image - two works that can be compared with the historical heritage of the city and this makes them ideal examples of the relationship between architectural forms, history and environment.

Lo svolgimento della tesi segue la falsariga del discorso tenuto da Pier Luigi Nervi a Torino nel maggio 1961 al momento dell’inaugurazione del Palazzo del Lavoro. In quell’occasione egli illustra la concezione strutturale del suo edificio, realizzato attraverso l’accostamento di 16 elementi autoportanti e indipendenti (ciascuno costituito da un grande pilastro in cemento armato a sezione variabile - da cruciforme a circolare - e da una piastra metallica di copertura) che gli permettono di coprire uno spazio di 25.000 mq come richiesto dal bando di concorso. Nel descrivere le varie parti dell’edificio e le modalità con cui si sono susseguite le differenti lavorazioni (attraverso fasi di cantiere attentamente pianificate), Nervi omette un particolare interessante. Esaminando i disegni esecutivi dell’opera si rileva che all’interno di ogni pilastro è presente una cavità che permette di percorrerlo dalla base fino alla sommità. Ad una prima osservazione questi ‘cunicoli nascosti’ ricordano quelli ricavati nelle spesse murature delle cattedrali romaniche o gotiche, all’interno delle quali si trovano scale a chiocciola che collegano la cripta alla copertura o alle intercapedini del sottotetto. Come per le cattedrali del passato, anche nel Palazzo del Lavoro la creazione di uno spazio praticabile interno alla struttura risponde a più requisiti: funzionale (la manutenzione dei pluviali e delle coperture), costruttivo (la riduzione del peso proprio della struttura) ed economico (il risparmio del materiale). Nervi considera probabilmente questo dettaglio costruttivo un aspetto tecnico di minore importanza, appartenente cioè ad una dimensione ordinaria del proprio lavoro. Eppure, lo spazio ricavato all’interno del pilastro non coinvolge aspetti esclusivamente tecnici, ma sembra piuttosto nascere da una chiara visione progettuale che insegue un’idea di architettura, di unità, di organicità, di ‘servizio’ e di etica del mestiere. Dall’osservazione dell’edificio e della documentazione di progetto se ne ricava infatti una differente considerazione: lo scavo del pilastro non costituisce un aspetto secondario e, viste le implicazioni di carattere spaziale che introduce, merita di essere compreso e approfondito alla luce dell’intera opera di Nervi.

The thesis deals with the patch loading of I-girder with two longitudinal stiffeners. The configuration with two longitudinal stiffeners is often an excellent solution for beams of higher than 3 meters but has not yet been discussed in EN 1993-1-5. It is proposed a model of resistance harmonized with the methods used in Eurocodes for the other problems of buckling. The model contains three significant parts: the yield resistance, the elastic critical load used to determine the slenderness parameter and a reduction factor that relates the resistance to the slenderness. The thesis is structured into eight chapters, in addition to Preface and Table of Contents. Chapter 3 is a list of all symbols used. Chapter 4 presents a review of earlier works. Chapter 5 details the experimental investigations conducted by Gozzi (2007) on three samples without longitudinal stiffeners. Due to the difficulty of completing a personal physical model testing during the doctorate, it was decided to carefully study the laboratory work by Gozzi and use it as a basis for the calibration of the numerical study. In Chapter 6 is presented the first part of the numerical study. At this stage, the laboratory tests conducted by Gozzi have been reproduced through a finite element model. It is observed a good agreement of numerical results with test data. In Chapter 7 summarizes the results of numerical analysis of the girder with two longitudinal stiffeners. Chapter 8 presents the procedure proposed for calculating the ultimate patch loading resistance of the girder with two longitudinal stiffeners. Chapter 9 contains a summary of work done in this thesis with suggestions for the most important issues for future development. Chapter 10 lists the references. There are also three appendices with test data by Gozzi and data obtained from literature.

This work is dedicated to the study of damaging phenomena involving reinforced concrete structures and masonry buildings and the consequences in terms of structural performances decay. In the Italian context there are many examples of structures that have already exceeded their service life, considering not only the ancient buildings but also infrastructures and R/C buildings that today are operating from more than 50th years. Climate change which is subject to the entire planet, with changing in seasonal weather and increasing in environmental pollution, is not excluded could have a harmful influence on the rate of building materials decay previously deemed as durables. If the aggressive input changes very fast, for example in a few decades, then it can also change the response of a construction material considered so far durable; in this way the knowledge about the art of good build, consolidated over the centuries, is thwarted. Hence this study is focused on the possibility to define the residual capacity for vertical or seismic loads for structures that are already at the limit of their service life, or for which is impossible to define a service life. The problem in an analysis of this kind, and that is what makes this research different from the main studies avaibles in the literature, is to keep in correlation – in a not so expensive computationally way – issues such as: - dangerous environmental inputs adequately simulated; - environmental conditions favorable to the spread of pollutants and development of the degradation reactions (decay’s speed); - link between environmental degradation and residual bearing capacity A more realistic assessment of materials residual performances that constitute the structure allows to leave the actual system for the residual load-bearing capacity estimation in which all factors are simply considered through the use of a safety factor on the materials properties.

The aim of this study was to develop a model capable to capture the different contributions which characterize the nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete structures. In particular, especially for non slender structures, the contribution to the nonlinear deformation due to bending may be not sufficient to determine the structural response. Two different models characterized by a fibre beam-column element are here proposed. These models can reproduce the flexure-shear interaction in the nonlinear range, with the purpose to improve the analysis in shear-critical structures. The first element discussed is based on flexibility formulation which is associated with the Modified Compression Field Theory as material constitutive law. The other model described in this thesis is based on a three-field variational formulation which is associated with a 3D generalized plastic-damage model as constitutive relationship. The first model proposed in this thesis was developed trying to combine a fibre beamcolumn element based on the flexibility formulation with the MCFT theory as constitutive relationship. The flexibility formulation, in fact, seems to be particularly effective for analysis in the nonlinear field. Just the coupling between the fibre element to model the structure and the shear panel to model the individual fibres allows to describe the nonlinear response associated to flexure and shear, and especially their interaction in the nonlinear field. The model was implemented in an original matlab® computer code, for describing the response of generic structures. The simulations carried out allowed to verify the field of working of the model. Comparisons with available experimental results related to reinforced concrete shears wall were performed in order to validate the model. These results are characterized by the peculiarity of distinguishing the different contributions due to flexure and shear separately. The presented simulations were carried out, in particular, for monotonic loading. The model was tested also through numerical comparisons with other computer programs. Finally it was applied for performing a numerical study on the influence of the nonlinear shear response for non slender reinforced concrete (RC) members. Another approach to the problem has been studied during a period of research at the University of California Berkeley. The beam formulation follows the assumptions of the Timoshenko shear beam theory for the displacement field, and uses a three-field variational formulation in the derivation of the element response. A generalized plasticity model is implemented for structural steel and a 3D plastic-damage model is used for the simulation of concrete. The transverse normal stress is used to satisfy the transverse equilibrium equations of at each control section, this criterion is also used for the condensation of degrees of freedom from the 3D constitutive material to a beam element. In this thesis is presented the beam formulation and the constitutive relationships, different analysis and comparisons are still carrying out between the two model presented.

Can space and place foster child development, and in particular social competence and ecological literacy? If yes, how can space and place do that? This study shows that the answer to the first question is positive and then tries to explain the way space and place can make a difference. The thesis begins with the review of literature from different disciplines – child development and child psychology, education, environmental psychology, architecture and landscape architecture. Some bridges among such disciplines are created and in some cases the ideas from the different areas of research merge: thus, this is an interdisciplinary study. The interdisciplinary knowledge from these disciplines is translated into a range of design suggestions that can foster the development of social competence and ecological literacy. Using scientific knowledge from different disciplines is a way of introducing forms of evidence into the development of design criteria. However, the definition of design criteria also has to pass through the study of a series of school buildings and un-built projects: case studies can give a positive contribution to the criteria because examples and good practices can help “translating” the theoretical knowledge into design ideas and illustrations. To do that, the different case studies have to be assessed in relation to the various themes that emerged in the literature review. Finally, research by design can be used to help define the illustrated design criteria: based on all the background knowledge that has been built, the role of the architect is to provide a series of different design solutions that can give answers to the different “questions” emerged in the literature review. / Possono gli spazi e i luoghi facilitare lo sviluppo personale e in particolare la coscienza ecologica e la competenza sociale? In caso di risposta positiva, in che modo gli spazi e i luoghi sono in grado di fare la differenza? Questa tesi mostra che la risposta alla prima domanda è positiva e in seguito cerca di spiegare il modo in cui gli spazi e i luoghi possono assumere un ruolo rilevante. La ricerca inizia con l’analisi di letteratura scientifica di diverse discipline – sviluppo infantile e personale, psicologia infantile, scienze dell’educazione, psicologia ambientale, architettura e architettura del paesaggio – anche con l’obiettivo di individuare le possibili connessioni per impostare riflessioni interdisciplinari. Tali conoscenze interdisciplinari sono state tradotte in una serie di criteri progettuali per spazi e luoghi che possano facilitare lo sviluppo della competenza sociale e della coscienza ecologica. L’analisi della letteratura scientifica è finalizzata a costruire solide basi per lo sviluppo dei criteri progettuali. La definizione di tali criteri necessita anche dello studio di una serie di progetti e realizzazioni: casi di studio possono dare un contributo positivo perché esempi e buone pratiche possono aiutare nella “traduzione” di conoscenza teorica in idee progettuali illustrate. A tale scopo, i diversi casi di studio sono stati valutati in base ai vari temi apparsi nella letteratura. Infine, la ricerca attraverso il progetto può essere usata per precisare i principii progettuali: sulla base della conoscenza costruita, il ruolo del progettista è di elaborare una serie di soluzioni progettuali che possono dare risposte alle diverse “domande” emerse dall’analisi della letteratura.

L’ingegner Pier Luigi Nervi (1891-1979), progettista, costruttore e teorico del “Costruire Correttamente”, ha intrapreso un proprio esclusivo percorso professionale che ha decretato negli anni una notevole fortuna critica fino a un sostanziale oblio dopo la sua morte. La presente ricerca di dottorato intende approfondire le tematiche legate a una significativa tipologia strutturale che ha contrassegnato il percorso professionale di Pier Luigi Nervi: le architetture voltate. Cupole, volte e coperture geodetiche rappresentano il sistema ottimale con il quale Nervi ha perseguito una personale ricerca mirata alla definizione di grandi luci di copertura a spessore ridotto. Questi sistemi di copertura rappresentano per Nervi la miglior espressione architettonica in quanto perfetta sintesi tra funzioni statiche e esigenze economiche. Le parole chiave per definire l’ambito di studio possono essere cosi riepilogate: sperimentazione/variazione sul tema/primato della grande luce/nuove strutture. La tesi intende indagare i tentativi di rinnovamento che, a partire dagli anni sessanta, spingono Pier Luigi Nervi a sperimentare l’applicazione di nuovi materiali come l’alluminio in sostituzione totale o parziale di un sistema costruttivo, quello del ferrocemento, che ha contraddistinto la maggior parte delle sue opere decretandone il successo. La testimonianza di questa intransigenza, legata all’etica del costruire secondo i principi di naturalezza e razionalità, costantemente riaffermata da Nervi nelle sue diverse pubblicazioni, è sorprendentemente disattesa nella ricerca sulle nuove strutture. Queste strutture, sperimentate senza successo in considerazione della loro mancata concreta attuazione, rivelano un complesso di singolarità capace di porre in discussione quell’intransigenza a cui Nervi ha fedelmente dichiarato di attenersi. La lettura critica del progetto di concorso per il Kuwait Sports Centre, elaborato nel 1968, contiene la sintesi di tutte le parole chiave della ricerca. Scopo della presente tesi è documentare circostanze, innovazioni e anomalie che hanno accompagnato Pier Luigi Nervi nella definizione di nuove strutture voltate. / Pier Luigi Nervi (1891-1979), designer, building contractor and theorist of the “Costruire Correttamente” (Properly Building) took up a unique career path which led him to a notable critical success over the years up to a substantive oblivion after his death. This doctorate research aims at studying thoroughly all the issues related to a remarkable structural typology which characterized Pier Luigi Nervi’s professional career: vaulted architectural structures. Domes, vaults and geodetic roofing are considered by Nervi as an optimal system through which he carried out his personal research focused on the definition of large spans with reduced thickness. These roofing systems are the best architectural expression for Nervi as perfect synthesis between static functions and economic needs. The keywords to define the field of study can be summed up thus: Experimentation/variation on the theme/primacy of large spans/new structures. The thesis is intended to analyse the renewal attempts which, from the 1960s, led Nervi to test the application of new materials such as the aluminium to completely or partially replace a building system and the ferro-cement which marked most of his works determining his success. Surprisingly, the testimony of this intransigence - mainly related to the ethics of building according to the principles of naturalness and rationality and constantly reaffirmed by Nervi in his several publications - is not considered in the research on new structures. Although these structures were tested without success because never completed, they revealed elements of uniqueness which are able to challenge the intransigence Nervi declared to faithfully adhere to. The critical study of the design competition for the Kuwait Sports Centre, developed in 1968, holds the synthesis of all the research keywords. In conclusion, the purpose of this thesis is to examine circumstances, innovations and anomalies which led Nervi to the definition of new vaulted architectural structures.

La questione energetica ha assunto, negli ultimi anni, un ruolo centrale nel dibattito mondiale in relazione a quattro fattori principali: la non riproducibilità delle risorse naturali, l’aumento esponenziale dei consumi, gli interessi economici e la salvaguardia dell'equilibrio ambientale e climatico del nostro Pianeta. E’ necessario, dunque, cambiare il modello di produzione e consumo dell’energia soprattutto nelle città, dove si ha la massima concentrazione dei consumi energetici. Per queste ragioni, il ricorso alle Fonti Energetiche Rinnovabili (FER) si configura ormai come una misura necessaria, opportuna ed urgente anche nella pianificazione urbanistica. Per migliorare la prestazione energetica complessiva del sistema città bisogna implementare politiche di governo delle trasformazioni che escano da una logica operativa “edificio-centrica” e ricomprendano, oltre al singolo manufatto, le aggregazioni di manufatti e le loro relazioni/ interazioni in termini di input e output materico-energetiche. La sostituzione generalizzata del patrimonio edilizio esistente con nuovi edifici iper-tecnologici, è improponibile. In che modo quindi, è possibile ridefinire la normativa e la prassi urbanistica per generare tessuti edilizi energeticamente efficienti? La presente ricerca propone l’integrazione tra la nascente pianificazione energetica del territorio e le più consolidate norme urbanistiche, nella generazione di tessuti urbani “energy saving” che aggiungano alle prestazioni energetico-ambientali dei singoli manufatti quelle del contesto, in un bilancio energetico complessivo. Questo studio, dopo aver descritto e confrontato le principali FER oggi disponibili, suggerisce una metodologia per una valutazione preliminare del mix di tecnologie e di FER più adatto per ciascun sito configurato come “distretto energetico”. I risultati di tale processo forniscono gli elementi basilari per predisporre le azioni necessarie all’integrazione della materia energetica nei Piani Urbanistici attraverso l’applicazione dei principi della perequazione nella definizione di requisiti prestazionali alla scala insediativa, indispensabili per un corretto passaggio alla progettazione degli “oggetti” e dei “sistemi” urbani. / The energy issue has recently become crucial in the global debate in relation to four main factors: the non-reproducibility of natural resources, the exponential increase in consumption, the economic interests and the preservation of the environment and climate of our Planet. It is therefore necessary to change the pattern of production and consumption of energy, especially in cities where the highest consumption of energy is concentrated. For these reasons, the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) is now beginning to look as essential, appropriate and urgent even in urban planning. To improve the overall energy performance of the city system the government policies should come out of a "building-centric" operative logic covering, in addition to individual estates, the aggregations of buildings and their relationships/interactions in terms of input and output of matter-energy. The widespread replacement of existing estates with new hyper-technology buildings, is unlikely. So how, can we redefine rules and practices to create energetically efficient urban fabric building? This research proposes the integration of the emerging territorial energy planning and the more established zoning in the generation of the urban fabric "energy saving", adding to the energy and environmental performance of individual buildings those of the context, in a global energy balance. This study, describing and comparing the main RES available today, suggests a methodology for preliminary assessment of the mix of technologies and RES best suited for each site, configured as a "district energy". The results of this process provide the basics to prepare the necessary actions related to the integration of the energy efficiency in Town Planning through the application of the principles of equalization in the definition of performance requirements to the scale of settlements, which are essential for a correct transfer in the design of the urban "objects" and “systems".