Snow and lake ice have very high albedos compared to other surfaces found in nature. Surface albedo is an important component of the surface energy budget especially when albedos are high since albedo governs how much shortwave radiation is absorbed or reflected at a surface. In particular, snow and lake ice albedos have been shown to affect the timing of lake ice break-up. Lakes are found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and lake ice has been shown to be sensitive to climatic variability. Therefore, the modelling of lake ice phenology, using lake ice models such as the Canadian Lake Ice Model (CLIMo), is important to the study of climatic variability in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions and accurate snow and lake ice albedo measurements are required to ensure the accuracy of the simulations. However, snow and lake ice albedo can vary from day-to-day depending on factors such as air temperature, presence of impurities, age, and composition. Some factors are more difficult than others to model (e.g. presence of impurities). It would be more straight forward to just gather field measurements, but such measurements would be costly and lakes can be in remote locations and difficult to access. Instead, CLIMo contains an albedo parameterization scheme that models the evolution of snow and lake ice albedo in its simulations. However, parts of the albedo parameterization are based on sea-ice observations (which inherently have higher albedos due to brine inclusions) and the albedo parameterization does not take ice type (e.g. clear ice or snow ice) into account. Satellite remote sensing via the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) provides methods for retrieving albedo that may help enhance CLIMo’s albedo parameterization. CLIMo’s albedo parameterization as well the MODIS daily albedo products (MOD10A1 and MYD10A1) and 16-day product (MCD43A3) were evaluated against in situ albedo observations made over Malcolm Ramsay Lake near Churchill, Manitoba, during the winter of 2012. It was found that the snow albedo parameterization of CLIMo performs well when compared to average in situ observations, but the bare ice parameterization overestimated bare ice albedo observations. The MODIS albedo products compared well when evaluated against the in situ albedo observations and were able to capture changes in albedo throughout the study period. The MODIS albedo products were also compared against CLIMo’s melting ice parameterization, because the equipment had to be removed from the lake to prevent it from falling into the water during the melt season. Cloud cover interfered with the MODIS observations, but the comparison suggests that MODIS albedo products retrieved higher albedo values than the melting ice parameterization of CLIMo. The MODIS albedo products were then integrated directly into CLIMo in substitution of the albedo parameterization to see if they could enhance break-up date (ice off) simulations. MODIS albedo retrievals (MOD10A1, MYD10A1, and MCD43A3) were collected over Back Bay, Great Slave Lake (GSL) near Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, from 2000-2011. CLIMo was then run with and without the MODIS albedos integrated and compared against MODIS observed break-up dates. Simulations were also run under three difference snow cover scenarios (0%, 68%, and 100% snow cover). It was found that CLIMo without MODIS albedos performed better with the 0% snow cover scenario than with the MODIS albedos integrated in. Both simulations (with and without MODIS albedos) performed well with the snow cover scenarios. The MODIS albedo products slightly improved CLIMo break-up simulations when integrated up to a month in advance of actual lake ice break-up for Back Bay. With the MODIS albedo products integrated into CLIMo, break-up dates were simulated within 3-4 days of MODIS observed break-up. CLIMo without the MODIS albedos still performed very well simulating break-up within 4-5 days of MODIS observed break-up. It is uncertain whether this was a significant improvement or not with such a small study period and with the investigation being conducted at a single site (Back Bay). However, it has been found that CLIMo performs well with the original albedo parameterization and that MODIS albedos could potentially complement lake-wide break-up simulations in future studies.

Uncertainties associated with the microphysical and radiative properties of ice clouds remain an active research area because of the importance these clouds have in atmospheric radiative transfer problems and the energy balance of the Earth. In this study, an adding/doubling model is used to simulate the top of atmosphere (TOA) radiance and full Stokes vector from an ice cloud at the wavelength lambda = 865 nm with many different combinations of assumed ice habits (shapes) and different degrees of ice surface roughness, and the polarized radiance at a wide range of scattering angles is derived. Simulated results are compared with polarized radiance data from the POLDER (POLarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances) instrument on board the PARASOL (Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from a Lidar) satellite. Bulk ice scattering properties are obtained by using five different size distributions collected during field campaigns ranging in effective diameter from 10 micrometers to 90 micrometers. Bulk scattering properties for the MODIS Collection 5 ice cloud product are used in this study, along with properties for two mid-latitude ice cloud models, a polar/mid-latitude ice model, and a model built for ice clouds over deep convection. Solid columns and hollow columns are used as well. The polarized radiance simulation results for the moderate surface roughness level best fit the satellite measurements for all ice models, though severely roughened ice crystals do fare well in a few cases. Hollow columns are the best fit to the satellite polarization measurements, but of the ensemble ice models, the polar/mid-latitude model at an effective diameter of 90 micrometers best fits the polarized radiance measurements for the one day of PARASOL data considered. This model should be the best to simulate ice cloud properties on a global scale.

This thesis is devoted to ultrasound investigations of a family of rare-earth compounds known as spin ice. The crystal structure of these compounds is composed of tetrahedral units with magnetic ions in each corners. In the ground state of these materials, two spins are directed inward on each tetrahedron and two spins outward. There are a number of features that are common to the spin-ice materials Ho2Ti2O7 (HTO), Yb2Ti2O7 (YbTO), and Dy2Ti2O7 (DTO). In DTO, nonequilibrium processes have been probed by ultrasound waves at low temperatures. The sound velocity and sound attenuation exhibit a number of unusual anomalies as a function of applied magnetic field for temperatures below the freezing temperature of 500 mK. These robust anomalies can be seen for longitudinal and transverse acoustic modes for different field directions. The anomalies show broad hystereses. Most notable are peaks in the sound velocity, which exhibit two distinct regimes: an intrinsic (extrinsic) regime in which the data collapse for different sweep rates when plotted as function of field strength (time). Moreover, these quasi-periodic peaks are strongly affected by thermalcoupling conditions. We discuss our observations in context of emergent quasiparticles (magnetic monopoles) which govern the low-temperature dynamics of spin ice. I have studied spin-lattice and single-ion effects in the spin-ice materials (DTO) and (HTO) in a wide range of temperatures and magnetic fields. The sound velocity and sound attenuation of various acoustic modes experience a renormalization due to phase transformations as well as interactions with lowenergy magnetic excitations (topological defects). In particular, a sharp dip observed in the sound attenuation has been explained within the framework of the spin-ice model. In addition, crystal-electric-field effects lead to a renormalization of the sound velocity and sound attenuation at very high magnetic fields. We analyze our observations using an approach based on exchange-striction couplings and single-ion-type interactions. Experiments on YbTO revealed evidence of a first-order transition known as a transition from a magnetic Coulomb liquid (MCL) to Coulomb ferromagnet state at T = 0.15 K. Coupling of the sound waves to quantum fluctuations cause a sharp anomaly in the sound velocity and sound attenuation. An increase of the quantum-fluctuation frequency when lowering the temperature down to the phase transition, leads to a minimum in the sound velocity and a maximum in the sound attenuation. This behavior can be explained in frame of resonating sound waves in presence of quantum fluctuations. Below the transition temperature, the quantum fluctuation effects are less pronounced. Measurements in applied magnetic fields, revealed a transition from a fluctuating Coulomb-ferromagnet state to a state with suppressed fluctuations. The experimental data presented in this thesis, show the important role of spin-strain interactions in spin-ice materials. In addition, theoretical considerations based on exchange-striction couplings and single-ion strain interaction, strongly support most of the experimental results.

This thesis is devoted to ultrasound investigations of a family of rare-earth compounds known as spin ice. The crystal structure of these compounds is composed of tetrahedral units with magnetic ions in each corners. In the ground state of these materials, two spins are directed inward on each tetrahedron and two spins outward. There are a number of features that are common to the spin-ice materials Ho2Ti2O7 (HTO), Yb2Ti2O7 (YbTO), and Dy2Ti2O7 (DTO). In DTO, nonequilibrium processes have been probed by ultrasound waves at low temperatures. The sound velocity and sound attenuation exhibit a number of unusual anomalies as a function of applied magnetic field for temperatures below the freezing temperature of 500 mK. These robust anomalies can be seen for longitudinal and transverse acoustic modes for different field directions. The anomalies show broad hystereses. Most notable are peaks in the sound velocity, which exhibit two distinct regimes: an intrinsic (extrinsic) regime in which the data collapse for different sweep rates when plotted as function of field strength (time). Moreover, these quasi-periodic peaks are strongly affected by thermalcoupling conditions. We discuss our observations in context of emergent quasiparticles (magnetic monopoles) which govern the low-temperature dynamics of spin ice. I have studied spin-lattice and single-ion effects in the spin-ice materials (DTO) and (HTO) in a wide range of temperatures and magnetic fields. The sound velocity and sound attenuation of various acoustic modes experience a renormalization due to phase transformations as well as interactions with lowenergy magnetic excitations (topological defects). In particular, a sharp dip observed in the sound attenuation has been explained within the framework of the spin-ice model. In addition, crystal-electric-field effects lead to a renormalization of the sound velocity and sound attenuation at very high magnetic fields. We analyze our observations using an approach based on exchange-striction couplings and single-ion-type interactions. Experiments on YbTO revealed evidence of a first-order transition known as a transition from a magnetic Coulomb liquid (MCL) to Coulomb ferromagnet state at T = 0.15 K. Coupling of the sound waves to quantum fluctuations cause a sharp anomaly in the sound velocity and sound attenuation. An increase of the quantum-fluctuation frequency when lowering the temperature down to the phase transition, leads to a minimum in the sound velocity and a maximum in the sound attenuation. This behavior can be explained in frame of resonating sound waves in presence of quantum fluctuations. Below the transition temperature, the quantum fluctuation effects are less pronounced. Measurements in applied magnetic fields, revealed a transition from a fluctuating Coulomb-ferromagnet state to a state with suppressed fluctuations. The experimental data presented in this thesis, show the important role of spin-strain interactions in spin-ice materials. In addition, theoretical considerations based on exchange-striction couplings and single-ion strain interaction, strongly support most of the experimental results.

Tire parameters play a very important role in tire performance. Depending on the driving conditions for which a given tire is designed, its parameters must be chosen appropriately (e.g., the radius of the tire, the width of the tire, material properties of different sections). Among tire characteristics, the material properties of the rubber compounds have a vital role in tire behavior. Previous studies show that the material properties of the rubber are highly dependent on temperature. Thus, a comprehensive study on the effect of the material properties of the rubber on tire performance for different temperatures as well as different road conditions is required. In this study, a theoretical model has been developed for tire-ice interaction. The temperature changes obtained from the model are used to calculate the height of the water film created by the heat generated due to the friction force. Next, the viscous friction coefficient at the contact patch is obtained. By using the thermal balance equation at the contact patch, dry friction is obtained. Knowing the friction coefficients for the dry and wet regions, the equivalent friction coefficient is calculated. The model has been validated using experimental results for three similar tires with different rubber compounds properties. For the experimental part of this study, four tires have been selected for testing. Three of them have identical tire geometry and structure but different rubber tread compounds. Several tests were conducted for the chosen tires in three modes: free-rolling, braking, and traction. The tests were performed for two different normal loads (4 kN and 5.6 kN), two different inflation pressures (21 psi (144.8 kPa) and 28 psi (193 kPa)), and three tire temperatures levels (-10°C, -5°C, and -1 °C). The Terramechanics Rig at TMVS at Virginia Tech has been used for conducting the tests. The results from this study show the sensitivity of the magnitude of the tractive force with respect to parameters such as tire temperature, normal load, etc. The results also indicate that the tire with the lowest value of the Young modulus has the highest traction among all four tires used in this study. The model developed can be used to predict the temperature changes at the contact patch, the tire friction force, the areas of wet and dry regions, the height of the water film for different ice temperatures, different normal loads, etc. The results from this study coincide with the obtained results from the experiments. According to the data available, tire B with the smallest value of Young modulus and the smallest value of the specific heat parameter was shown to have the highest friction coefficient in both simulation and experiment. After validating the results using experimentally collected data, the model was used to perform a sensitivity analysis on the tire performance with respect to six material properties of the tread rubber: thermal conductivity, rubber density, Young's modulus, specific heat, roughness parameter of the rubber, and radii of spherical asperities of the rubber. The results from this study show the sensitivity of the magnitude of the friction coefficient to the rubber material properties. The friction coefficient has a direct relationship with the density of the rubber and has an inverse relationship with Young's modulus, specific heat, and roughness parameter. / Doctor of Philosophy / In order to decrease the number of deaths and injuries caused by driving on icy roads and increase the safety of the vehicle, it is important to improve the tire performance on ice. To this, understanding the effects of different tire and road parameters such as material properties of the rubber, loading condition, and temperature on the tire-ice performance is required. Tire parameters play a very important role in tire performance. Depending on the driving conditions for which a given tire is designed, its parameters must be chosen appropriately In this project, the effects of different tire and terrain parameters such as rubber material properties on tire performance on ice using an experimental and modeling approach have been studied. For the experimental part of this study, several tests were conducted for more than 30 tires with different material properties. The results of this study show what are the most important material properties of the rubber for designing a tire with the best performance on ice. For the modeling part of this study, a semi-analytical model was developed. The model was validated using collected experimental data and was used to predict the performance of the tire by having information about its material and physical properties. The developed model called ATIIM2.0 has several advantages. First, it is a unique model for a complete tire (not a rubber block) that can be used to predict the performance of the tire by using its material properties. In addition, this model can be connected to vehicle models to improve the performance of the vehicle in general. The model developed can be used to predict the temperature changes at the contact patch, the tire friction force, the areas of wet and dry regions, the height of the water film for different ice temperatures, different normal loads, etc. The results from this study coincide with the obtained results from the experiments.