Thesis (M.A.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1960. / Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.S.)--Humboldt State University, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 21-24). Also available via Humboldt Digital Scholar.

Thesis (Ed. S.)--Eastern Illinois University, 1987. / Bibliography: leaf 40.

Thesis (M.S.)--Eastern Illinois University, 1968. / Includes bibliographical references.

The current study was conducted to examine the underrepresentation of African American Faculty in Illinois institutions of higher education. The researcher used the critical race theory and cultural proficiency theory to frame the study. The following research questions guided the study: (1) What challenges and barriers have African Americans experienced in receiving a quality education? (2) In what ways does family structure affect the success of African American professors toward the completion of a graduate degree? (3) What positive experiences have African Americans had throughout their educational career to encourage their pursuit of the professoriate? and (4) How can faculty diversity be obtained among institutions of higher education? The study employed a mixed-methods research design to examine the experiences of African American faculty members employed in Illinois higher education institutions. The quantitative portion of the study consisted of an online survey distributed to African American faculty members. The qualitative portion included both focus groups and interviews. Open-ended questions were designed to elicit information concerning the experiences of African Americans in their educational pursuit. An email survey was sent to 242 African American faculty members from throughout the state of Illinois. Of the 242 surveys, 216 were actually received by the intended participants. The study yielded a 43% return rate. The survey provided demographic information about Illinois higher education faculty members. It presented a synopsis of the population and the factors that affected a student's educational pursuit. In addition, the survey provided information on the family background and experiences from the faculty member's childhood throughout their college career and into their professional career. Focus groups were conducted to obtain the personal stories of African American faculty members regarding the experiences they have had in their pursuit of the professoriate. Three focus group sessions were held resulting in a total of 12 individuals participating. The challenges facing African Americans in obtaining a quality education were discussed along with discussion of their familial and educational history. This method provided a rich opportunity for discussion and insight into the lives of African American faculty members. Post-hoc interviews were conducted with six African American faculty members at a mid-western four-year research institution. These interviews provided additional information in order to connect the results of this study. The interviews presented interesting conversation and brought out different perspectives than the survey and focus groups had provided. Interview participants were asked about the positive aspects in their lives that encouraged them to pursue the professoriate. Familial and educational history was briefly discussed. The main topic of discussion for the interview sessions was the employment and tenure process for higher education faculty members and how faculty diversity can be achieved. It is recommended that students be encouraged from an early age to pursue academia as a career. College preparatory courses need to be included in the high school curriculum in order to prepare students for the collegiate environment. In addition, high school counselors should prepare all students for a college career of their choosing. New programs and procedures need to be developed and implemented. Funding programs and forgivable loans should be developed to ease the burden of educational expenses of minority students. Mentorship programs should be developed so students will have a person to go to if they need assistance or advice. Internships and teaching assistantships need to be a requirement in all disciplines. These opportunities provide valuable experience and make the students more employable upon graduation. Institutions should seriously consider hiring minority individuals prior to degree completion. There are many candidates in the pipeline and these people need to be approached and groomed for jobs in academia. Over and above all, faculty diversity needs to be included in the overall strategic plan of the institution. Central leadership and accountability for the diversification of faculty must start with the college president and be filtered down to the hiring bodies. Diversity policies and procedures must be developed and implemented in order to increase the presence of minorities in higher education institutions.

Various ecological parameters, including soil pH, calcium, and habitat complexity have been suggested in the literature as having influence on land snail abundance and diversity. I compared relationships between 15 ecological parameters and snail abundance and diversity. 5,393 snails of 72 species were collected from 60 sites in 2007. Habitat observations were recorded in the field and soil core samples taken at each site and later analyzed for soil moisture, organic matter, cation exchange capacity, pH, calcium, magnesium, zinc, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, boron, manganese, iron and copper. Statistical analyses were run using these soil factors plus a habitat complexity index (from combined values assigned to different levels of vegetation, topography and exposed rock), for a total of 15 parameters. To reduce the number of parameters and arrive at a more biologically meaningful model, Bayesian Information Criteria analysis (BIC) was run for abundance and diversity. The resulting best-fitted BIC model for abundance contained 3 parameters (pH, S, and habitat complexity) (R2 = 0.47), all of which were positively associated with abundance in a multiple regression analysis. For diversity, the best-fitted BIC model also contained 3 parameters (Ca, Fe, and habitat complexity) (R2 = 0.54). Ca and habitat complexity showed a positive association in the multiple regression analysis, but Fe was inversely associated with diversity, suggesting Fe could potentially act as an ecological limiting factor to it. These results suggest that land snail abundance and diversity are best treated separately in analyses, as they are influenced by different variables, with the exception of habitat complexity, which is suggested to have a positive association with both abundance and diversity. The regression model equations have potential value in that they can be used to predict snail abundance and diversity in areas that have not been assessed.

The potential for mobilization of SO4 and Cl from coal stockpiles and coal processing waste and refuse (waste rock) disposal areas to the receiving streams and groundwater is an environmental concern and proper management practices are necessary to minimize the impact of these discharges. In an effort to characterize the long-term environmental impact of weathering in from both a typical coal stockpile and coal waste disposal areas a series of laboratory- scale and field-scale kinetic tests were performed with the ultimate goal of improving both coal and coal waste management at coal mines in a manner that minimizes the discharge of sulfate (SO4) and chloride (Cl). Laboratory experiments demonstrated that kinetic testing is a productive method for understanding the chemistry of surface water discharges from coal stock piles. However, these tests proved to be problematic in simulating the weathering of coal refuse. In an effort to improve the kinetic tests, field test columns were constructed that eliminated this deficiency. Unfortunately, field-scale test columns were found to be difficult to construct and, due to extremes weather events, difficult to maintain for an adequate test period. In the course of the experiment elemental and mineralogical data were collected both before and after weathering of fresh, run-of-mine coal from the Springfield (No.5) coal seam and coal refuse samples from processing the Springfield (No. 5) and Herrin (No. 6) coal seams. Duplicate columns were constructed in 2008 to conduct kinetic testing of the fresh run-of-mine No. 5 coal collected at an active underground mine in Southeastern Illinois. These columns measured 15.4 cm (6-inch) diameter by 61 cm (2-ft.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 32 months (27 leach cycles) using locally-collected rainfall water at a rate consistent with climatic data. Similarly, triplicate columns were constructed in 2009 to conduct kinetic testing of fine and coarse coal collected at the cooperative mine. The coal refuse test columns also measured 15.4 cm (6-inch) diameter by 61 cm (2-ft.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 41 months (31 leach cycles). Coal refuse was emplaced into the columns using a measured amount of compaction and a controlled moisture content (15.3%) based on data from previous laboratory engineering tests (Proctor testing). Locally-collected rainfall water was again used for leaching at a rate consistent with climatic data. Three columns investigated the leaching of compacted coarse refuse (the control) and three columns investigated the leaching of compacted 80:20 blend of coarse and fine refuse. To verify the results of the laboratory-scale, kinetic tests on coal refuse six field-scale (208 L or 55 gal.) columns were constructed in 2011 which measured 57.2 cm (22.5-in.) diameter by 85.1 cm (33.5-in.) tall and were leached in batch mode for 18 months (17 leach cycles). Two columns were again investigated the leaching of compacted coarse refuse (the control), while two additional columns leached compacted 85:15 blend of fine and coarse refuse and two columns tested a 80:10:10 blend of coarse refuse, fine refuse, and ground limestone. These field-scale tests allowed the use of full-sized refuse particles and were subject to natural precipitation events. An improved geochemical data set was obtained by these experiments due to an extension of the laboratory kinetic tests from 12 to 32 months to better simulate a mine-site stockpile conditions. Similarly, kinetic tests on coal refuse were extended from 12 to 41 months to better simulate SO4 and Cl release from a coal refuse facility. Three coal refuse disposal options were investigated in these experiments: 1) compacted coarse refuse (the control), 2) a compacted blend of fine and coarse refuse and 3) a compacted blend of coarse refuse, fine refuse, and ground limestone. Trends observed during the course of this research in leachate chemistry, as well as, comparisons of refuse placement options provide important insights necessary for development of management practices which minimize SO4 and Cl in coal mine discharge. The observed temporal changes were largely due to the presence of carbonate and aluminum mineral buffering of pH; three stages were observed during the kinetic testing of the Springfield (No.5) coal (Stages 1 through 3). Conversely, only Stage 1 and Stage 2 were observed in leaching tests of coal refuse due to the greater amount of compaction, which reduced the hydraulic conductivity and slowed the weathering rate. The identification of these three stages is important because of the improvement in coal and coal refuse management and water quality treatment realized by an understanding of these geochemical trends. The stages observed in the coal column leachate are: Stage 1: Laboratory coal column leachate collected during the first 7 months of simulated weathering of the No.5 coal maintained a favorable pH (> 6.4) maintained by an excess in bicarbonate alkalinity which minimized discharge of SO4 and common coal mine drainage metal Fe. The concentrations of Na and Cl in the leachate were elevated in early leach cycles, but declined rapidly as water soluble salts were flushed from the coal columns, which was an indicator that a portion of the Cl was water soluble forms such as salts and dissolved Cl- ions in pore water and not bound to the organic structure. Stage 2: A transitional period (Stage 2) occurred during the next 3 months of simulated coal stockpile weathering (7 to 10 months). This stage marked the exhaustion of the carbonate mineral buffer and an acceleration of coal weathering. Stage 2 leachate was characterized by a rapid decrease in the leachate pH to 4.0 and an increase in concentration of SO4 and dissolved Fe. Both Na and Cl in the leachate continued to decline in Stage 2, but the release related to flushing rate and not pH. Stage 3: After 10 months of simulated coal stockpile weathering, the leachate pH continued to slowly decrease to values below 2.0. At the same time the SO4 concentration increased rapidly and Fe concentration increased by over a factor of ten. The decline in pH was believed to have been restricted by iron and possibly aluminum mineral buffering during Stage 3. The release of Na and Cl in the coal increased somewhat during Stage 3 presumably due to slaking of shale contain in the ROM coal and the subsequent increase in the exposure of the soluble portion of the Cl to weathering and flushing. Laboratory leach testing of the Springfield (No.5) Coal from Southeastern Illinois suggests that: (1) SO4 levels in coal stockpile discharge would be relatively low up to ≈7 months. This time period, therefore, should correspond to the operational limit of run-of-mine (ROM) coal storage for this case example; and (2) Elevated discharges Cl- and the Na+ counter ion occurs immediately and may require control by operational measures (dilution and/or periodic blow down from a closed loop water handling system) to minimize Cl. A favorable leachate pH of > 6.4 which typified Stage 1 was also maintained throughout the laboratory-scale experiments for all blended coal refuse and in two of three columns simulating coarse coal refuse. Lower pH conditions similar to Stage 2 in the coal study was observed in leachate from only one of three coarse refuse columns after ≈12 months of kinetic testing. In all laboratory column experiments, the concentrations of Na and Cl in the leachate were elevated in early leach cycles, but declined rapidly as water soluble salts were flushed from the coal refuse columns. However, in the field column experiments favorable pH conditions (> 6.4) were only maintained throughout the 18 month experiment in the two columns which received a relatively high amount or ground limestone addition (10%). Lower pH conditions similar to Stage 2 observed in the coal leachate tests were observed in leachate from two coarse refuse columns and one of two blended refuse columns after ≈12 months. Complementary laboratory and field kinetic testing of coal refuse also suggest that: 1) SO4 levels in simulated coal refuse disposal area can be minimized by systematic compaction and co-disposal of properly dewatered fine and coarse refuse, and 2) elevated Cl (and Na) discharges occur immediately, which may require operational measures such as dilution and/or periodic blow down from the mine’s closed loop system. In most cases all of these measures can be completed using existing facilities at minimal additional costs. This dissertation provides insights into the potential for long-term discharge of SO4 and Cl from coal processing facilities in the Southeastern part of the Illinois and the operational controls that should be considered to minimize these impacts. Additional studies are suggested to confirm the findings with different coal seams and mining regions in the Illinois basin. Some notable findings include: 1) An increased understanding of coal and coal refuse leachate geochemistry can be expected by extending kinetic testing from the normal short-term tests (<12 >months) to longer-term testing (32-41 months). By conducting long-term (>12 months) kinetic tests additional observations were possible regarding limitations on rate of release of Cl and SO4 by both carbonate mineral buffer (pH 6.4) and an mineral ferrihydrite buffer at pH ≈3.4, as well as, increases due to chemical and physical weathering (slaking) of the materials. An understanding of the bicarbonate buffer is necessary to design operational controls during mining and reclamation and to evaluate the impact of alkaline (i.e. limestone) additions. 2) Kinetic testing of coal refuse should simulate real-world placement of these materials in a disposal area. Current coal mining practices require both the placement and compaction of coarse or blended refuse, which is not duplicated in kinetic methods employed by previous investigators that conducted tests using relatively loose-packed materials. Kinetic testing of non-compacted coal refuse is inconsistent with mine safety regulations in the U.S. dictate that compaction will be required for the structural stability of the coal refuse facility. Therefore, this experiment improved on the conventional kinetic testing methodology and provides a more appropriate estimate of the weathering rates as they relate to the release of SO4 and Cl from these materials. However, due the low hydraulic conductivity of the compacted refuse blends the laboratory column leachate volumes were inadequate to conduct key alkalinity analyses when rainfall was applied at physically realistic rates. Larger volume field columns may, therefore, serve as a better alternative. 3) Limitations on the mobility of the powerful oxidant, ferric iron (Fe3+), created by compaction and the presence of alkaline materials that support the presence of a bicarbonate buffer are critical in controlling the release of SO4. 4) Increased compaction in the two coal refuse blends would be expected to restrict the hydraulic conductivity and, therefore, flushing rate of the refuse and, as a result, reduce the corresponding release of Cl. However, the reverse was observed which was due in part to the high release rate of the soluble portion of the Cl from fine-grained materials, which in this case was the <200 mesh>(<0.074mm) fine coal processing waste. Moderate additions (<5%) of fine-grained (< 1 cm) limestone provides both an increased stability of blended coal refuse due to its role as a drying and cementing agent. The environmental benefit of limestone addition to coal refuse blends is the reduction of SO4 release due to: 1) Lower infiltration of H2O and O2(g) as the result of improved compaction, and 2) Increase in the net neutralization potential which results in increased bicarbonate mineral buffering. However, it is recognized that due to the size of these facilities limestone additions at the rate suggested by this research would be costly.

This project examined the differences in skeletal preservation from several mound sites in the West Central Illinois Valley, spanning the Late Archaic to Late Woodland periods, from approximately 2500 B.C to A.D. 1000: Koster Mounds, containing Early Archaic to Middle Archaic burials from approximately 8700 B.C. to 800 B.C.; Peisker Mounds, containing Early Woodland burials from approximately 625 B.C. to 230 B.C.; Gibson Mounds, containing Archaic, Hopewell, and Late Woodland burials starting 50 B.C. to A.D. 400; and Helton Mounds, containing Late Woodland burials from approximately A.D. 830 to A.D. 1200. The intrinsic factors of bone density and age and sex of the individual were compared statistically with bone inventories and osseous taphonomic conditions to determine if these factors affected preservation. Based on extant inventories each skeleton was scored on the percent of standard measurements possible to take, 24 cranial, 10 mandibular, and 44 postcranial measurements, following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), as a proxy for individual element completeness for major portions of the skeleton. Additionally, this project examined more specifically the preservation of the os coxa. The five commonly used areas for sexing (the ventral arc, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus ridge, greater sciatic notch, and preauricular sulcus), following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Phenice (1969), were examined and scored independently. Three commonly used areas for aging (the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, and acetabulum) following Brooks and Suchey (1990), Phenice (1969) and Calce (2012) were examined and scored independently. Soil samples were collected from two sites and analyzed to determine if soil pH affects the preservation rates of skeletons differently. To assess the amount of data lost in older skeletal assemblages the author tested the hypotheses that (1) denser skeletal portions are most likely to be well-preserved, (2) mature adult males are more likely to be well-preserved than mature adult females, (3) mature adults will be more well-preserved than the remains of juveniles and old adults, and (4) skeletons from more recent time periods will be more well-preserved than skeletons from earlier time periods. The results of the study show, that while there are many factors that influence preservation of skeletal assemblages in the archaeological record, certain factors are more important than others when it comes to skewing the archaeological record. Sex of the individual does not appear significantly to affect the rate of preservation, while age at death and duration of burial, especially when looking at infants compared to adults and individuals buried during the Archaic period compared to individuals buried during the Middle and Late Woodland period, do affect preservation.

The worldwide decline of amphibians is due to several interacting factors that vary in their involvement and severity according to species, geography, environment, and individual response (Wake and Vredenburg 2008; Gahl et al. 2011). One of those threats has caused population declines globally (Stuart et al. 2004), Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which is the fungal pathogen that causes chytridiomycosis in amphibians (Berger et al. 1998; Longcore et al. 1999). Bd's effects are not completely known since some areas of the world have been studied (e.g., Panama, Lips et al. 2006; United States Sierra Nevada, Briggs et al. 2010; Australia, Phillott et al. 2013) while other areas have received little or no attention, often because these systems appear stable or because the effect of threats are not known. In the Midwestern United States, widespread anuran population declines occurred historically and are in some cases ongoing (e.g., Vogt 1981, Oldfield and Moriarty 1995, Brodman and Kilmurry 1998, Casper 1998, Hay 1998, Moriarty 1998, Mossman et al. 1998, Varhegyi et al. 1998, Steiner and Lehtinen 2008, Zippel and Tabaka 2008). Large-scale habitat alterations, chemical contaminations, and other threats have likely caused some Midwestern U.S. amphibian declines (Lannoo, 1998), but the role of Bd in historic and current population declines has been limited to small population surveys or incidental discovery of Bd (e.g., Pessier et al. 1999; Beasley et al. 2005; Steiner and Lehtinen 2008). I investigated the current and historic Bd infection levels among amphibians in Illinois and identified species risk factors associated with likelihood of chytridiomycosis-related death. My research questions focused on which biotic and abiotic factors explained Bd prevalence and intensities among current populations, which species risk factors would make them more likely to suffer severe Bd infection, and what the historic Bd status was in Illinois. Working with Illinois amphibians presented the opportunity to answer these research questions because Bd was already known to occur in Illinois (Pessier et al. 1999), there were a variety of anecdotal examples of historic population declines in Illinois (Beasley et al. 2005; Lannoo 1998), and extensive museum holdings were available to document the spatial and temporal pattern of Bd among Illinois populations. In the chytridiomycosis-amphibian disease system, mortality is driven by intensity of infection. Intensity is affected by many factors, including environmental temperatures, amphibian community composition, and fungal traits. However, the relative importance of biotic and abiotic factors on Bd prevalence and intensity in multispecies, natural communities is unknown for any wild populations. In 2008-2009, I conducted one of the first large-scale strategic surveys of both current and historic presence of Bd. I sampled 4,691 Illinois amphibians from current and historic populations to provide a framework of historic Bd infection and current status, and used those results to identify at-risk populations based on natural history and species risk factors. I tested 2,804 amphibians from 12 species for Bd, and determined that Bd was present in all sites, wetlands, and in all species in both years. Statewide prevalence was relatively high (2008 &mu = 34%; 2009 &mu = 55%), as was average individual infection intensity (2008 &mu = 1,773 Zswab; 2009 &mu = 2,159 Zswab). Wetland water temperature best explained Bd prevalence, but several biological factors explained intensity. Higher Bd intensities were correlated with species richness and indicated an amplification effect (Ostfeld and Keesing 2012). Hylid treefrogs may be amplifying species because they had the highest infection intensities and their presence was correlated with increased infection in other taxa. Bd can cause declines and extinctions in amphibian populations (Stuart et al. 2004), but other threats may also be involved (Collins and Storfer 2003). In Illinois, amphibian populations may be threatened by a variety of assaults including disease, habitat loss, chemical contaminants, and invasive species (Lannoo 1998). Management for biodiversity typically focuses on identifying and mitigating threats and prioritizing species susceptibility by identifying risk factors. I proposed to study whether species risk factors for Bd also signal general susceptibility to other threats (e.g., Lips et al. 2003; Bielby et al. 2008; Cooper et al. 2008) in Illinois amphibians. I identified nine potential risk factors for each of 21 Illinois species form the literature, and compared association of those traits with disease intensity. I used Bd intensity data from 1,445 Bd-positive amphibians collected 2008-2010. As in Chapter 2, I found that both biological and environmental factors explained disease intensity at the species levels: air temperature during the breeding season was the best predictor of infection intensity with three species biological traits also contributing (i.e., longevity, clutch size, and aquatic index). Conservation status did not explain Bd intensities, likely because conservation status is based upon rarity, population trends, and presence of threats, but which does not always include Bd susceptibility. Since most of the study species were common prior to my disease survey with relatively stable populations with no prior Bd threat, the conservation statuses used in this analysis did not predict Bd risk. Now that I have shown Bd to be widespread and at high intensities in the state, a reassessment of data included in the species status would be timely and might be warranted. I found that Bd was geographically and taxonomically widespread in Illinois, which suggested an established infection status, perhaps longer than the first report from the 1990s (Pessier et al. 1999). Also, this suggests that population declines from chytridiomycosis might have occurred historically. I used museum holdings to determine spatial and temporal distributions of Bd in Illinois amphibians. I tested 1,008 museum specimens from the vertebrate collections at Southern Illinois University, Illinois Natural History Survey, and the University of Illinois Museum of Natural History to determine the oldest date of anuran Bd infection in Illinois. I detected 110 Bd positive specimens (10.7%, CI: 9.0-12.8%) in four species collected during the 1890s-1980s. The earliest Bd record was from a Lithobates sphenocephalus collected in southern Illinois in 1900. I determined that Illinois amphibians have been living endemically with Bd for at least 113 years, extending the date of the oldest U.S. record of Bd infection by 61 years. The long-term presence of Bd, coupled with multiple anecdotal reports of population declines, suggest that Bd may have been involved in historic population declines in Illinois amphibians. I found widespread taxonomic and geographic distribution of Bd among current and historic populations of Illinois amphibians. I found a surprisingly long history of Bd in Illinois that transforms the way we consider impacts on historic species and potential co-evolution of disease in Midwestern U.S. amphibians. My finding is as old as the oldest records from Brazil, Africa, and Asia (Weldon et al. 2004; Goka et al. 2009; Schloegel et al. 2010, 2012), suggesting a more ancient history of Bd and amphibians.

Low and very low food security is a concern in the US, and specific populations are at high risk. An understudied population with regards to food security is university students. University students suffering from low and very low food security are at risk for physical and mental consequences. Because limited research has been conducted identifying the food security status of university students in the US, the public is unaware of the problem. This study was designed to determine food security status of Illinois university students and the socio-demographic characteristics associated with each food security classification. A cross-sectional survey design was used to analyze the food security status of Illinois university students. An online 40-question survey based on the USDA's Household Food Security Survey Module was distributed via mass email to university students at four Illinois universities including Eastern Illinois University, Northern Illinois University, Southern Illinois University, and Western Illinois University. Statistical analysis included frequencies and Chi-squared Test of Independence. A total sample of 2,753 students from four universities completed the online survey. Results determined that 30.4% of Illinois university students had low or very low food security, twice as high as the general public. There were significant associations between food security status and the following socio-demographic variables: ethnicity, academic level, GPA, living location on- or off-campus, living alone, financial support, and hometown region. African Americans and Hispanics, juniors and seniors, students with lower GPAs, students receiving financial support requiring repayment, and students from urban hometowns were found to be at-risk populations associated with low or very low food security. This study suggests a significant portion of Illinois university students are at high risk for low and very low food security. Significant socio-demographic characteristics associated with low and very low food security could be used to develop programs targeting those in need. Future research should be conducted to determine food security status of students at universities throughout the US