Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) continue to kill and seriously injure military members throughout the Iraqi theatre. Autonomous Ground Vehicle (AGV) seeks to identify the human presence placing the IED and then report that contact to a unit of action. This research developed a semi-autonomous platform that can navigate to waypoints, avoid obstacles, investigate possible threats and then detect motion that triggers a visual camera. The information is then relayed back to the user and can trigger a variety of actions. AGV has been tested in a numerous environments with a wide range of success. It is limited by the communication range from its standard 802.11G router and the continuous availability of the global positioning system. Terrain with extensive peaks and valleys is not ideal for the current platform. However, for detecting the human presence that is consistent with IED placement, AGV is well suited.

U.S. special operations forces (SOF) are likely to undertake missions against terrorists, insurgents, and other enemies where they will encounter explosive hazards. Identification, detection, and neutralization of weapons of mass destruction, improvised explosive devices, booby-traps, and similar weapons requires the support of technicians trained in explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), an expertise that is not resident in SOF units. Consequently, there is a need for EOD technicians with SOF capabilities who can readily integrate with them. This thesis employs a variety of methodologies, from an analysis of required capabilities to an application of game theory, to determine how SOF can be best supported by existing EOD forces and how the supporting command structures and relationships may be improved. It concludes that the Navy's EOD force is best suited to provide support to SOF, and should be included in all special operations planning documents. Those Navy EOD units tasked to provide support to SOF should be consolidated into one organization dedicated to that mission. Finally, when supporting SOF, the Navy should replace its current eight-person EOD operational element with a two-man team that will better match SOF operational requirements. / US Navy (USN) author.

The Air Base has long been a potential target of attack for enemy planners. An effective way to attack the United States Air Force (USAF) is to avoid its usual dominance in the air and use an asymmetrical approach, attacking air bases with ground forces inserted into the Joint Rear Area. The history of airbase ground attacks from 1942 to 1994, documented in the book Snakes in the Eagles' Nest, shows that the dominant strategy employed by air base attackers has been the standoff attack. Roughly, 75 percent of all airbase attacks have been through the use of rockets or mortar fire from outside the airbase's perimeter defenses. In Vietnam, where the defenses against penetrating ground attacks were emphasized, this percentage rose to 96 percent. Historically, robust main operating bases, with passive defensive measures such as hardened facilities and redundant systems, have been able to withstand standoff attacks. The relative inaccuracy of the attacker's standoff systems and their limited ability to sustain fire on the air base minimized damage. Times have changed and the USAF finds itself operating in an expeditionary mode across the globe. Expeditionary Air Forces cannot depend on the luxury of operating off airfields with the robust infrastructure of main operating bases. In addition, the emergence of man portable, guided munitions for mortars and guided anti-tank missiles has increased the accuracy of potential standoff weapons. Finally, the sophistication of Improvised Explosive Devices in Iraq and of modern radio-controlled model aircraft suggests the potential for attackers to build their own guided standoff weapons. The potential for a "one shot, one kill" standoff weapon is here today, negating the effectiveness of passive hardening measures. Disrupting these attacks will take new strategies. Understanding current Joint and USAF doctrine is the first step. Areas for further study include disrupting the enemy forces before they launch a standoff attack, intercepting the standoff round in flight and mitigating the damage on impact are discussed.

The prevalence of injuries from improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in recent U.S. military conflicts has highlighted the lack of knowledge of the acute and long-term consequences of blast exposure. Real-world blast exposure is complex and multi-phasic. It is unclear whether the shock wave component of blast exposure (primary blast) can cause traumatic brain injury (TBI); however, other blast components, such as tertiary blast (inertial loading mechanics), have known potential to injure the brain. Clinical and in vivo studies suggest that complex blast loading of the whole body and head can result in acute and delayed behavioral deficits and neurodegeneration, yet tertiary blast exposure or injury to the body can initiate a systemic response that complicates understanding of this pathology. To set safe thresholds for primary blast exposure and design headgear that can guard against primary blast, tolerance criteria for primary blast specific to brain must be defined. We developed and validated a model of primary blast injury for use with in vitro organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs) and determined that primary blast without concomitant tertiary blast loading or systemic response can injure isolated brain samples. This work was the first to define a cell death tolerance criterion for OHSCs to primary blast and report that the threshold for deficits in neuron function was below the threshold for cell death. Mild TBI (mTBI) or concussion, by definition, results in an altered mental state that can include loss of consciousness (LOC) for less than 30 minutes, dizziness, confusion, and retrograde amnesia. These symptoms typically subside within a week after injury; however, for some patients who experience multiple concussions over a relatively short period, these symptoms can persist for a year or longer; persistence of mTBI symptoms is called post-concussion syndrome (PCS). Studies suggest an initial mechanical trauma to the brain can initiate a period of time during which the brain is more vulnerable to additional injury. Little is known about this phenomenon; therefore the current standard of care for patients suffering from concussion is rest and removal from activities with a risk of additional brain trauma. During combat deployment, over 89% of service members reported an incidence of altered mental state and over 86% reported LOC following 2 or more exposures to blast. We evaluated the response of OHSCs to repetitive primary blast (shock wave loading) and repetitive tertiary blast (stretch injury) separately, characterizing the period of vulnerability that follows an initial insult to define safe rest-periods after blast-exposure and better understand pathologies of more complex injuries, i.e. combined primary and tertiary blast. Long-term potentiation (LTP) was significantly reduced by 2 primary blast exposures delivered 24 hours apart. An initial shock wave exposure increased tissue vulnerability to subsequent exposure, which lasted as long as 72 hours but not longer than 144 hours. Repetitive primary blast exposure also increased microglial activation. Similarly, a single mild stretch injury initiated a period of heightened vulnerability to subsequent mild stretch that lasted at least 72 hours but not longer than 144 hours long. Repetitive stretch injury significantly increased cell death, nitrite concentration, and astrogliosis and significantly reduced LTP. We also tested delayed administration of memantine as a treatment for repetitive stretch injury. Memantine is approved by the Food & Drug Administration for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, and preclinical studies suggest memantine may be neuroprotective following TBI. Cell death was reduced and LTP was rescued by delayed memantine treatment. Along with further preclinical and clinical investigation of repetitive primary and tertiary blast exposure, these studies may aid in setting safe rest periods and identifying new therapies for service members exposed to blast. This research has shown that primary and tertiary blast exposure can injure OHSCs causing cell death, altering neuron function, and increase vulnerability to a subsequent exposure. These studies expand our understanding of the neuropathology of primary and tertiary blast loading and evaluate methods to improve outcome after repetitive injuries with complementary strategies including rest periods and drug-treatment.

Includes supplemental material. / Insight gained from terrorist attacks, training excercises, and intelligence intercepts over the past few years has shown a renewed interest in the use of mining as an effective means of disrupting commerce and damaging critical infrastructure. In an attempt to develop a system of systems architecture to defeat mines and Maritime IEDs (MIED), the project team developed several system alternatives, or Adaptive Force Packages, that incorporate both existing systems and emerging technologies. Overall performance was assessed using a US Joint Forces Command sponsored wargame simulating an MIED attack on ports based on the geography of Seattle and Tacoma. A critical analysis of the alternatives based on performance, suitability, cost, and risk were carried out. The study results showed that increases in performance are attainable with mixed results in cost and risk, and highlighted necessary actions and considerations that must be taken by military and civilian leaders in order to adequately prepare for and counter MIEDs in U.S. Ports.

CHDS State/Local / During the past decade the world has witnessed an increase in the use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). Explosives in the hands of terrorists continue to pose a significant threat. Lessons learned indicate that when traditional explosives become difficult to obtain, bomb makers turn to common chemicals as precursors to manufacture explosives. Only the imagination and the availability of certain chemicals limits the number explosives which can be manufactured with relative ease utilizing common chemicals readily available in our communities. Availability of precursor chemicals and ease by which explosives can be manufactured, increase the potential that IEDs will be deployed in the Homeland and requires a careful study of the options necessary to defeat IED deployment. This thesis analyzes various options, policies and procedures to ascertain which would be most appropriate to defeat explosives manufactured from common chemicals. Options include removing, restricting, and tracking certain chemicals available to the public as well as increasing awareness to emergency responders and the public. State and federal legislation pertaining to methamphetamine laboratories is analyzed to identify potential crossover legislation to counter explosives manufacture. Intelligence gathering and information sharing technologies and procedures are assessed for effectiveness as law enforcement tools. / Director, Isanti County Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Management

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / William L. Dunn / The signature-based radiation-scanning (SBRS) technique relies on radiation detector responses, called “signatures,” and compares them to “templates”, to differentiate targets containing nitrogen-rich explosives from those that do not. This investigation utilizes nine signatures due to inelastic-scatter and prompt-capture gamma rays from hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen (HCNO) as well as two neutron signatures, produced when a target is interrogated with a 14.1 MeV neutron source beam. One hundred and forty three simulated experiments were conducted using MCNP5. Signatures of 42 targets containing explosive samples (21 of RDX and 21 of Urea Nitrate), and 21 containing inert samples were compared with the signatures of 80 artificial templates through figure-of-merit analysis. A density filter, comparing targets with templates of similar average density was investigated. Both high and low-density explosives (RDX-1.8 g cm-3 and Urea Nitrate-0.69 g cm-3) were shown to be differentiated from inert materials through use of neutron and gamma-ray signature templates with sensitivity of 90.5% and specificity of 76.2%. Density Groups were identified, in which neutron signature templates, gamma-ray signature templates or the combination of neutron and gamma-ray signature templates were capable of improving inert-explosive differentiation. figure-of -merit analysis, employing the best Density Group specific templates, differentiated explosive from inert targets with 90.5% sensitivity and specificity of over 85%.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Boston University / The widespread use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in the Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan has caused a dramatic increase in shockwave-induced mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI), leading mTBI to be dubbed the 'signature injury' of modern warfare. Currently, the pathology of shockwave-induced mTBI is unknown , and it is diagnosis is based on self-reported symptoms and combat history. While the etiological mechanism has not yet been determined , it is becoming increasingly accepted that shockwaves themselves are the brain-damaging agent that emanate from IEDs. To assess how mild, sub-lethal shockwaves might damage brain tissue, we developed an in vitro assay to deliver shockwaves to neuronal cells in culture, and then assayed several properties of these cells that affect their function. This assay involved exposing rat cortical and hippocampal primary neuronal cultures to shockwaves of increasing magnitude generated with a biolistic Gene Gun. The Gene Gun produces shockwaves of sufficient overpressure to cause cognitive impairment in animal models of shockwave-induced mTBI. Our results show that overpressures of ~1.0 pound per square inch (psi) caused transient membrane permeability for molecules up to ~12 nanometers in diameter. This change in membrane permeability was accompanied by a transient decrease in cellular ATP levels and synaptic densities. This synaptic degeneration correlated with changes in the level and phosphorylation state of several synaptic proteins examined. Similar results were observed in dissected rat retinas suggesting that these shockwave-induced effects can occur in complex tissues, such as the brain. Based on these findings we propose that shockwaves damage cellular membranes, leading to a decrease in intracellular ATP, and ultimately to a reduced numbers of synapses, the part of neurons most important for learning, memory and behavior. Additional experiments in whole animals will be required to ascertain whether shockwave-induced cellular damage and synaptic degeneration plays an etiological role in shockwave-induced mTBI.

A proof of concept is created that demonstrates how low-cost sensors and a simple software solution can be used to proactively detect IED placement. The main goal is to detect suspicious behavior; Specifically we derive requirements that loitering, meandering, improper location and object placement shall be detected. Current methods being used to detect Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) are costly in terms of equipment and risk to life, and many are retroactive; IED detection occurs long after explosives are placed. A prototype system is explored with the quality attributes of being low-cost, proactive and using simple software methods. A wireless sensor network of simple sensors may alert authorities to people in the act of placing IEDs. Previous work with Crossbow Motes showed that a network of infrared motion sensors can be used to detect loitering. In this prototype nine other sensors are reverse engineered to determine their true operating specifications. Then a prototype sensor network is developed to explore which low-cost sensors can be used to detect suspicious behavior. The results indicate that five low-cost sensors are effective in detecting suspicious behavior: infrared motion, infrared distance, light, force sensors and pressure sensors meet our requirements.

In 2010, my wife and I were harmed in a bombing while traveling in India. Over a thousand people were attending the outdoor Hindu ceremony along the Ganges in Varanasi but when I woke up in the rubble no one was there. I searched for my wife amidst the concrete debris, found her unconscious, roused her, and we fled. This thesis is an examination of that gap in my experience, that unlived and unknown lapse of time-- between the moment I was blown off my feet by the blast wind until I stood up again-- and how it has reshaped my life. Circling that gap, a gap now filled with surrogate memories (e.g. others' accounts of the stampede after the explosion, photos of the destruction that we never saw first-hand), this thesis looks at the history that my wife and I unwittingly stumbled into, of the Babri Mosque and the Hindu-Muslim cycle of violence surrounding its existence, its destruction and the destruction's aftermath. Mainly, however it is about the marriage of two bombing victims, two bombing victims who have nearly the same physical injuries and thus for years have fooled themselves into believing they understand what the other is going through. It circles not only the unlived bombing "experience" but also the unspoken differences between how they've both been affected by the trauma. Blast wind physics, ear anatomy and physiology (the main site of their injuries), trauma research, and Hindu, Muslim and Buddhist history and comsology are all used in service of this investigation.