La viande de volaille et les oeufs constituent une source de protéines bon marché mais la production avicole est menacée par deux maladies virales, la grippe aviaire hautement pathogène et la maladie de Newcastle, ayant des implications économiques et de santé publique à travers le monde. L'introduction du virus de l'influenza aviaire (AIV) hautement pathogène H5N1 en Afrique en 2006 a souligné la nécessité d'une meilleure compréhension d'AIV en Afrique. Grâce à des études de surveillance, nous avons constaté que le virus H5N1 ne circulait plus après 2008 en Afrique subsaharienne. Toutefois, les analyses phylogénétiques réalisées sur le génome de virus faiblement pathogènes H5N2 trouvés chez des oiseaux sauvages au Nigeria ont révélé des caractéristiques de virus réassortants. La similitude d'un gène avec ceux trouvés dans d'autres virus d'Afrique australe renforce l'idée qu'AIV est capable de persister et circuler en Afrique. Nous avons également montré que de nouvelles souches virulentes du virus de la maladie de Newcastle (NDV) constituent la majorité des souches détectées. Leur distance génétique par rapport aux autres souches de NDV connues, leur diversité génétique et leur dispersion géographique suggèrent que ces souches ont probablement évolué localement, circulent depuis un certain temps dans la région et que le commerce et le mouvement d'animaux ont contribué à leur propagation. Nos résultats suggèrent également que la contribution des oiseaux sauvages à la dispersion des souches virulentes du NDV est probablement limitée. Au Luxembourg cependant, les oiseaux sauvages pourraient être un acteur important pour l'introduction du NDV / Poultry meat and eggs constitute one of the cheap sources of protein around the world but poultry production is threatened by two main viral diseases, highly pathogenic avian influenza and Newcastle disease, with economic and public health implications worldwide. The introduction of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus in Africa in 2006 highlighted the necessity of a better understanding of avian influenza virus (AIV) in Africa. Through surveillance studies, we found that H5N1 virus was not circulating anymore in sub-Saharan Africa after 2008. However, phylogenetic analyses performed on the genome of low pathogenic H5N2 viruses found in wild birds in Nigeria revealed that they were reassortants. The similarity of one gene to those found in other AIV viruses from Southern Africa strengthened the hypothesis that AIV may actually persist and circulate in Africa. We have shown that new virulent strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) constituted the majority of the strains detected. Their genetic distance compared to other NDV strains, their genetic diversity and their geographic dispersion in West and Central Africa suggested that these strains probably evolved locally, that they circulated for some time in the region and that trade and movement of animals likely contributed to their spread. Our findings also suggested that the contribution of wild birds to the dispersion of virulent strains of NDV was probably limited. In Luxembourg however, wild birds may be an important player for the introduction of NDV strains

Dans le contexte de la menace pandémique liée au virus influenza A(H5N1), un projet «GRIPPE AVIAIRE ET GRIPPE PANDÉMIQUE » a émergé au sein de LyonBioPôle avec comme objectif le développement d’outils de caractérisation des virus influenza pour la production de vaccins. Pour étudier le réassortiment génétique entre virus influenza, nous avons développé 3 systèmes de génétique inverse : virus humain A(H3N2) et aviaires A(H5N2) et A(H5N1) et produit des virus réassortants de composition déterminée. Leurs capacités réplicatives ont été évaluées par cinétiques de croissance virale sur MDCK avec quantification de la production virale par qRT-PCR temps réel. L’émergence du virus influenza A(H1N1)2009 pose deux questions sur l’acquisition par réassortiment génétique, d’une résistance à l’oseltamivir d’une part ou de facteurs de virulence d’autre part. Nous avons donc développé un protocole de co-infection virale de cellules MDCK pour étudier les constellations de gènes des réassortants entre différents virus: A(H1N1)2009-A(H1N1) H275Y et A(H1N1)2009-A(H5N1). Nous montrons par deux approches différentes, génétique inverse et co-infections virales, que le réassortiment génétique entre souches aviaires et humaines et surtout aviaires et porcines est possible, en privilégiant certaines constellations. Nous rapportons que le virus pandémique peut acquérir la NA H275Y des virus A(H1N1) Brisbane-like résistants à l’oseltamivir sans que ses capacités de réplication ne soient altérées. De même nous montrons que son réassortiment avec un virus hautement pathogène A(H5N1) est possible. Ces observations renforcent la nécessité de promouvoir la vaccination afin de limiter les risques de co-infection virale chez un même individu. / In the context of A(H5N1) pandemics threat, an « avian flu and flu pandemics » project was proposed by LyonBioPole to develop influenza viruses characterization tools for vaccine production. To study genetic reassortment between influenza viruses, 3 reverse genetic systems of A(H3N2) human virus and A(H5N2) and A(H5N1) avian viruses were developed and reassortant viruses were produced. Their replicative capacities were evaluated using growth kinetics on MDCK cells with viral production quantification by real-time qRT-PCR. The A(H1N1)2009 emergence raises two questions about the acquisition by genetic reassortment of oseltamivir resistance and/or pathogenicity determinants. A co-infection protocol on MDCK cells was developed to study gene constellations of reassortant viruses like A(H1N1)2009-A(H1N1) H275Y and A(H1N1)2009-A(H5N1). We report here that genetic reassortment is possible between avian, human and swine strains using reverse genetic and viral co-infection and that some specific constellations emerged. We also report, that pandemic A(H1N1)2009 can acquire the H275Y mutated NA from seasonal oseltamivir resistant A(H1N1) viruses without any modifications on replicative capacities. This genetic reassortment is also possible with A(H5N1) viruses. These observations strenght the importance of vaccination against all these influenza strains to reduce the risk of one-individual viral co-infection.

Les virus influenza A ont suscité à partir de l’année 1997 un intérêtsanitaire et économique mondial considérable après l’émergence d’une formehautement pathogène d’un virus influenza aviaire H5N1. Cette épizootie a misen évidence le danger majeur que constitue la proximité entre espècessensibles sauvages et domestiques. En effet, pouvant présenter lescaractéristiques de réservoirs de ces virus, les canards étaient les plussoupçonnés de transmettre l’infection, grâce à une pratique migratoireimportante et d’un portage asymptomatique fréquent. Ce portage associe dans la plupart des cas des virus faiblement pathogènesde sous-types multiples. Ces virus peuvent se transmettre aux volaillesdomestiques et émerger en épizootie à virus hautement pathogène dans le casparticulier des sous-types H5 et H7. Ces épizooties peuvent avoir desconséquences économiques considérables, avec une mortalité avoisinant les100%, et sanitaire avec un possible passage à l’homme. Notre projet vise à caractériser l’infection et la transmission des virusinfluenza faiblement pathogènes, après inoculation expérimentale à unepopulation de canards de surface et plongeurs. Il répond également à lanécessité d’établir des méthodes de surveillance des virus influenzaaviaires à l’arrivé des oiseaux migrateurs dans des zones humides à richepatrimoine ornithologique, et situées à proximité de régions à fortpotentiel en matière de production avicole (La Dombes comme exemple). / Since 1997, influenza A viruses has given rise to great sanitary andeconomic interest after the emergence of a highly pathogenic subtype ofavian influenza virus H5N1. This epizooty underlined the threat that couldbe the closeness of wild and domestic birds. Ducks which were actuallyshowing reservoirs characteristics were suspected to pass on the virusthanks to their migratory habits and asymptomatic porterage.This porterage mostly involves low pathogenic viruses of numerous subtypes.Those viruses could be transmitted to domestic poultries and emerge, in thecase of H5 and H7 subtypes, in a viral highly pathogenic epizooty. Thoseepizooties may have major economic (average 100% mortality) and sanitary(possible transmission to humans) consequences.Our study aims to characterize the infection and the transmission of lowpathogenic avian influenza viruses, after experimental inoculation tosurface and diving ducks. It suggests setting up epidemiologic surveillancemethods of avian influenza viruses after the arrival of migratory birds inmost important wetlands, which are close to major poultry breeding regions(The Dombes for instance).

Le virus de la grippe est un virus à ARN négatif appartenant à la famille des Orthomyxoviridae qui se compose de 7 membres dont les virus influenza A, B, C et D. Le génome viral comprend 7 à 8 particules ribonucléoprotéiques (RNP) au sein desquelles l’ARN viral (ARNv) est recouvert de multiples copies de nucléoprotéines (NP) et est associé à l’ARN polymérase virale via ses extrémités 3’ et 5’. Au cours de ce travail de thèse, nous nous sommes tout d’abord focalisés sur l’étude biochimique de NP A et NP B et avons pu mettre en évidence des comportements différents en ce qui concerne leurs propriétés d’oligomérisation en présence ou en absence d’ARN et en fonction de la concentration en sel. Pour la première fois nous avons pu observer une structure similaire aux RNP mais reconstituée uniquement à partir de NP A et d’un ARN de 12 nucléotides. Nous avons pu formuler l’hypothèse que 12 nucléotides de l’ARN serait fixés à la NP avec une forte affinité tandis que le reste de l’ARN fixerait la NP avec une affinité beaucoup plus faible. En parallèle nous avons résolu la structure cristallographique de la nucléoprotéine de la grippe de type D et réaliser la caractérisation de son interaction avec l’importine-α7 humaine. Enfin nous avons étudié la fixation de l’ARN sur NP D et mis en évidence l’importance de l’extrémité C-terminale dans le processus de fixation à l’ARN. Ces informations ont permis de formuler de nouvelles hypothèses quant au fonctionnement du virus de la grippe et permettre d’inscrire ce projet de thèse dans une dynamique globale de lutte contre ce virus. / Influenza virus is a negative RNA virus belongs to the Orthomyxoviridae family which consists of 7 members including influenza viruses A, B, C and D. The viral genome comprises 7 to 8 ribonucleoprotein particles (RNP) in which the viral RNA (vRNA) is coated with multiple copies of nucleoproteins (NP) and is associated with the viral RNA polymerase by its 3 'and 5' ends. In this thesis, we first focused on the biochemical study of NP A and NP B and we demonstrate that there are different behaviors with regard to their oligomerization properties in the presence or absence of RNA and as a function of the salt concentration. For the first time we were able to observe a structure very similar to RNP which was reconstituted only from NP A and a 12 nucleotide RNA. Thus, we formulate the hypothesis that 12 nucleotides of the RNA would bind NP with a very strong affinity while the rest of the RNA would bind NP with a lower affinity. In parallel, we solved the crystallographic structure of the nucleoprotein of influenza D virus and we characterized its interaction with human importin-α7. Finally, we studied the binding of RNA on NP D and we demonstrated the importance of the C-terminal end in the RNA binding process. This thesis project made it possible to formulate new hypotheses concerning the functioning of the influenza virus and to include this thesis project in a global dynamic of combating the influenza virus.

Influenza virus is one of the major respiratory pathogens of humans as well as animals, including equines. There is an increasing evidence that bacterial infections are the most common cause of the death during influenza. In horses also, secondary bacterial pneumonia can lead to death, and surviving horses may take up to six months for the complete recovery resulting in heavy economic loss to the equine industry. Interleukin (IL)-23 mediated innate immune response has been shown to protect the host from various respiratory bacterial infections. However, studies to investigate the role of host and viral factors in the regulation of IL-23 are limited. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced transcription factor CHOP-10 and IFN-β has been shown to participate in the regulation of IL-23. Primary hypothesis for the current study was that influenza A virus (IAV) NS1 protein downregulates the IL-23 expression via inhibition of CHOP-10. In order to test our hypothesis, we infected the RAW264.7 cells - a murine macrophage cell line, and primary murine alveolar macrophage cells either with the wild type Influenza A virus (PR/8/34, PR8) or isogenic mutant virus lacking NS1 (delNS1). Quantitative analysis of mRNA expression revealed a significantly higher mRNA expression of IL23p19, IFN-β and CHOP-10 in delNS1 virus infected cells as compared the PR8 virus infected cells. Additionally, overexpression of CHOP-10 partially restored the expression of IL-23p19 in PR8 virus infected cells and knockdown of CHOP-10 resulted in downregulated expression of IL-23p19 in delNS1 infected cells. Taken together, these results suggest that IAV NS1 protein mediated inhibition of CHOP-10 expression leads to downregulation of IL-23 expression in macrophage cells in-vitro. Similar results were also observed in-vivo using IAV and Streptococcus zoooepidemicus (S. ze) co-infection model. In a co-infection mouse model delNS1 virus co-infection resulted in significantly higher expression of the IL-23 and IL-17. Considering the role of IL-23 in protection against respiratory bacterial pathogens, effect of exogenous supplementation of IL-23 was also investigated in the influenza and S. ze co-infection mouse model. We found that a single intranasal dose of recombinant murine IL-23 significantly improved the survival of mice co-infected with PR8 and S .ze. Overall, our study suggests that IAV infection subverts the IL-23 mediated respiratory innate immune response and restoration of IL-23 could protect from influenza-associated respiratory bacterial infections.

Influenza virus infects the human population worldwide and causes acute respiratory disease. Currently, the primary strategy for preventing influenza is seasonal vaccination which is capable of providing protection in most populations. However, seasonal vaccines are less efficacious to immunize the elderly and poorly induce cross-protective immunity against the reassorted pandemic virus in the recipients. Neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors have also been widely utilized to limit disease outcome. The currently used NA inhibitors, nonetheless, generate the drug-resistant progeny viruses; moreover, they are unable to directly target the host immune responses which cause immunopathology in severe cases. Therefore, new strategies that provide more effective immunogenicity, cross-protection and therapies against influenza infection must be developed. In this thesis, the adjuvanticity of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN), type I interferon (IFN) and Complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) when coadministered with seasonal influenza vaccines in ferrets is presented. It has been found that the adjuvanted vaccines are efficacious to induce neutralizing antibody responses. Several common and distinguished signaling pathways leading to dendritic cell (DC) maturation and B cell activation have been discovered from their adjuvanticity. Furthermore, it was determined that seasonal H1N1 prior infection more effectively induces cross-protection against the newly emerged 2009 pandemic H1N1 (H1N1pdm) virus in ferrets and mice than the seasonal vaccines. The prior infection-induced cross-reactive but non-neutralizing antibodies are capable of providing substantial protection in the H1N1pdm infected mice when CD8 T cells are absent. Lastly, function of different vaccine adjuvants for controlling H1N1pdm infection in mice has been investigated. Unlike other adjuvants, CFA is capable of protecting the mice from infection through enhancement of Treg cell suppressive molecules galectin-1 and CTLA-4 which downregulated DC costimulation and effector T cell responses. Overall, this thesis has provided novel mechanistic insights for developing protective strategies against influenza infection.

Influenza virus infects the human population worldwide and causes acute respiratory disease. Currently, the primary strategy for preventing influenza is seasonal vaccination which is capable of providing protection in most populations. However, seasonal vaccines are less efficacious to immunize the elderly and poorly induce cross-protective immunity against the reassorted pandemic virus in the recipients. Neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors have also been widely utilized to limit disease outcome. The currently used NA inhibitors, nonetheless, generate the drug-resistant progeny viruses; moreover, they are unable to directly target the host immune responses which cause immunopathology in severe cases. Therefore, new strategies that provide more effective immunogenicity, cross-protection and therapies against influenza infection must be developed. In this thesis, the adjuvanticity of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN), type I interferon (IFN) and Complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) when coadministered with seasonal influenza vaccines in ferrets is presented. It has been found that the adjuvanted vaccines are efficacious to induce neutralizing antibody responses. Several common and distinguished signaling pathways leading to dendritic cell (DC) maturation and B cell activation have been discovered from their adjuvanticity. Furthermore, it was determined that seasonal H1N1 prior infection more effectively induces cross-protection against the newly emerged 2009 pandemic H1N1 (H1N1pdm) virus in ferrets and mice than the seasonal vaccines. The prior infection-induced cross-reactive but non-neutralizing antibodies are capable of providing substantial protection in the H1N1pdm infected mice when CD8 T cells are absent. Lastly, function of different vaccine adjuvants for controlling H1N1pdm infection in mice has been investigated. Unlike other adjuvants, CFA is capable of protecting the mice from infection through enhancement of Treg cell suppressive molecules galectin-1 and CTLA-4 which downregulated DC costimulation and effector T cell responses. Overall, this thesis has provided novel mechanistic insights for developing protective strategies against influenza infection.

Le génome des virus influenza de type A est composé de huit segments de gènes (ARNv) de polarité négative retrouvés sous la forme de complexes ribonucléiques (RNPv). L'incorporation sélective des huit RNPv dans les particules virales néosynthétisées se fait par un mécanisme moléculaire qui fait intervenir des signaux d'encapsidation dites « région de packaging ». Nous avons montré que les segments de gènes interagissaient entre eux via des interactions de type ARN/ARN permettant la formation d'un réseau d'interactions. Nous avons de plus montré que les régions de packaging décrites dans la littérature semblent héberger les régions impliquées dans la mise en place du réseau d'interactions. Cette étude a été réalisée pour le virus humain H3N2 et le virus aviaire H5N2. Le mécanisme d'incorporation sélective des segments de gènes semble également réguler le réassortiment génétique, processus génétique responsable de l'émergence de virus réassortants. Nous avons montré qu'une restriction génomique impliquant les régions de packaging semble être responsable du taux de réassortiment génétique faible observé in-vitro et in-vivo. La modulation du réseau d'interactions ARN/ARN semble être nécessaire pour l'incorporation de segments aviaire dans le fond génétique du virus humain. Pour finir, nous avons montré que la composition génomique des virus réassortants vaccinaux joue un rôle central dans la réplication virale et dans la production des antigènes vaccinaux. Par une stratégie de cryo-microscopie, nous avons montré que la protéine PB1 joue un rôle central dans l'optimisation de la production des antigènes de surface / The genome of the influenza A virus (IAV) comprises eight single-stranded negativesense RNA segments (vRNAs). All eight vRNAs are selectively packaged into each progeny virion via packaging signal sequences that are located at both ends of the vRNAs. How these signals ensure packaging of all eight vRNAs remains unclear. It was hypothesized that selective packaging might be driven by direct interactions between vRNAs. Combination of biochemical and reverse genetic approaches allowed us to identify short nucleotide regions on vRNAs interacting with each other in vitro. Here, we demonstrated the importance of these interactions in the packaging process of the human H3N2 and avian H5N2 viral genomes. Furthermore, our results suggest that the packaging process could regulate genetic reassortment. Indeed, we observed that the genetic reassortment between H3N2 and H5N2 viruses is restricted as the avian vRNA HA cannot be incorporated into the human genetic background. Our investigations indicated that (i) the packaging signals are crucial for genetic reassortment and (ii) the modulation of the vRNAs interaction network may be required for the incorporation of the avian HA gene into the human genetic background. Characterization of seed viruses showed that the genetic composition is important for both high growth ability and antigen production. Indeed, cryo-electronic microscopy observations of reassortant virus indicated that the PB1 gene can strongly influence the antigen glycoprotein spike density

Although seasonal influenza epidemics represent a significant threat to public health, their treatment options remain limited. With deaths from the 1918 influenza pandemic estimated at >50,000,000 worldwide and future pandemics predicted, the need for a potent broad-spectrum influenza therapy is critical. In this thesis, I describe the use of a structurally modified zanamivir, an influenza neuraminidase inhibitor that blocks the release of nascent virus, to deliver attached therapeutic agents specifically to the surfaces of viruses and virus-infected cells, leading to simultaneous inhibition of virus release and immune-mediated destruction of both free virus and virus-infected cells. Chapter 1 describes the major characteristics of the influenza virus, the morbidity and mortality associated with annual infections by current strains of the virus, and the treatments available to reduce the disease burden associated with these infections. Chapter 2 describes the design, synthesis, and evaluation of a zanamivir-related targeting ligand and its conjugation to two orthogonal imaging agents which are then used to characterize the binding specificity and biodistribution of the targeting ligand in influenza virus-infected cells and in infected mice. Chapter 3 describes the development of an influenza virus-targeted immunotherapy, where a zanamivir-targeted hapten is exploited to redirect the immune system to destroy influenza virus and virus-infected cells. When tested in vivo, this immunotherapy is shown to be significantly superior to zanamivir in protecting mice from lethal influenza virus infections. Finally, both a zanamivir-targeted chemotherapy and a CAR-T cell therapy with different mechanisms of cytotoxicity against neuraminidase expressing cells are introduced in Chapter 4.

Influenza is a severe disease in humans and animals, causing upwards of 40,000 deaths every year in America alone. Influenza A virus (IAV) also causes periodic pandemics every 10 to 50 years, killing millions of people. Despite this, very few effective therapies are available. All strains of IAV are prone to developing resistance to antibodies due to the high mutation rate in the viral genome. Because of this mutation rate, a yearly vaccine must be generated before every flu season, and efficacy varies year to year. IAV has also mutated to escape several of the clinically-approved small molecule inhibitors. A therapeutic agent that targets a highly conserved region of the virus could bypass resistance and also be effective against multiple strains of IAV. IAV attachment is mediated by many individually weak hemagglutinin–sialic acid interactions that all together make a strong attachment to a host cell. Polymerized sialic acid analogs can recreate these interactions and block infection. However, they are not ideal therapeutics due to solubility issues and in vivo toxicity. We used liposomes as a novel means for delivery of the sialic acid-containing glycan, sialylneolacto-N-tetraose c (LSTc). LSTcbearing decoy liposomes form multivalent, polymer-like interactions with IAV. Decoy liposomes competitively bind IAV in hemagglutination inhibition assays and inhibit infection of target cells in a dose-dependent manner. LSTc decoy liposomes co-localize with IAV, while control liposomes do not. Inhibition is specific, as inhibition of Sendai virus and respiratory syncytial virus is not observed. In contrast, monovalent LSTc does not bind IAV or inhibit infectivity. LSTc decoy liposomes prevent the spread of IAV during multiple rounds of replication in vitro and extend survival of mice challenged with a lethal dose of virus. Considering the conservation of the hemagglutinin binding pocket and the ability of decoy liposomes to form high-avidity interactions with IAV hemagglutinin, our decoy liposomes have potential as a new therapeutic agent against emerging strains.