The objective of this research is to examine the institutional development of biotechnology in Brazil and, in particular, the role played by small firms in fostering biotechnology in the health and agriculture sectors and their relationship with both universities and large firms. The interest in this study stems from the crucial role played by small, high technology firms in innovation and diffusion of new technologies. Case studies emphasising the innovative capacity of small firms in several advanced countries are now available. In the US, in particular, there has been a proliferation of hundreds of small firms in biotechnology since the late 70s. The pattern of biotechnology development in the US suggests that small firms are functioning as a "bridge" between academia and large corporations. In developing countries, very little is known about the role of small firms in innovation, especially in a new, high technology area such as biotechnology. In the early 1980s, however, the emergence of a number of small companies operating in biotechnology in Brazil suggested that this might be the beginning of a new indigenous industry in this area. The purpose of this study was therefore to find out precisely what these biotechnology companies were doing, how far they fitted the American model of the new biotechnology firms and their links with the academic base, financial structures and large firms. It is the first study in this area, and it has been deliberately directed towards concentrating on the role of these small companies have played in the development and diffusion of this new technology. The empirical research presents original data collected from detailed interviews with twelve representative firms and relevant governmental agencies, carried out in 1989. Interviews were also conducted with academics in order to assess how far the small biotechnology firms were linked into the growing competence in this area of Brazilian universities. The main findings show that there are differences but also similarities between the American and the Brazilian pattern of biotechnology development. The Brazilian companies are not operating at the cutting-edge of this technology. On the contrary. they are using older and well tried techniques such as plant tissue culture. They do, however. link into the universities and large corporations.

Acceptance of information technology (IT) has remained a topic of interest for a last few decades. Several theories, specifically over the conceptualisation of the technology acceptance model (TAM) have emerged and they have been applied in different contexts to investigate new insights into the acceptance behaviour at individual and organisational levels. However, despite TAM’s maturity and validity in different contexts, very little published literature strives to extend its capability to predict individuals’ acceptance behaviour about an online banking information system (OBIS). A possible rational for this gap may be conceptualisation of the TAM under which individuals’ acceptance behaviour can only be predicted with two beliefs: perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU). The evidence in literature shows that PU and PEOU beliefs are not sufficient; hence, they may not explain individuals’ acceptance behaviour in emerging contexts, such as online banking information systems, especially in developing economies such as Pakistan. There is therefore a need for inclusion of any additional factor that can enhance prediction of acceptance of online banking information system by potential users. Extending research on the TAM, this study developed and tested a model of OBIS acceptance. The proposed model integrated key constructs from the information systems acceptance research stream into the theoretical frame of the TAM and other theories from social psychology, such as the theory of reasoned action (TRA), theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and the TAM2. According to the proposed conceptual model, OBIS acceptance was determined by eight main factors, which included perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, trust, technological self-efficacy, response time, output quality, accessibility, and terminology clarity. In this model, PU was hypothesised to be affected by PEOU, trust, technological self-efficacy (TSE), output quality (OQ) and response time (RT). In addition, PEOU was hypothesised to be determined by three external factors: TSE, accessibility and terminology clarity (TC). The model was tested on a sample of 353 Internet banking users in Pakistan. Using structural equation modelling with Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) software, data analysis showed considerable support for the extended hypothesised model. The result indicated that, in order of importance, PU, PEOU and trust explained 45.7 % of the variance in the acceptance behaviour. The trust and the TSE predicted 28.1 % of the variance in the PU. However, the hypothesised relationships between the PU and the PEOU, OQ and RT were found to be not significant. While in the PEOU, 21.8 % of the variance was predicted by the TSE, accessibility and TC. TSE was found to be a more influential determinant of the PEOU than the PU. The consideration of factors that have a significant influence on the acceptance of OBIS, as identified in this research, is important for the managers in the banking sector, especially in developing countries, in order to increase wider acceptance and use of these systems, which provide benefits to both the customers and the service providers.

Lead users are proposed as a valuable resource for marketers in terms of the (1) development, (2) adoption, and (3) diffusion of new products. We present the first consumer study to provide evidence that the latter two suggestions are justified. First, we find that lead users demonstrate stronger domain-specific innovativeness than more "ordinary" users. Second, lead users perceive new technologies as less "complex" and might therefore be better prepared to adopt them. Third, we find that lead users demonstrate stronger opinion leadership and weaker opinion seeking tendencies. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings for the marketing of new products. (authors' abstract)

A review of the innovation and diffusion literature indicates a considerable amount of research, where attention is given to a range of features which may support integration technologies adoption. However, some literature suggests that the findings derived from the study of large enterprises cannot be generalised and applied in SMEs due to the distinct characteristics of SMEs. Although the adoption of integration technologies is recognised as being different between large and small companies, the literature on its adoption by SMEs remains limited. Nevertheless, in existing work, there is a lack of studies emphasising the reasons why SMEs and large companies take the decision to adopt integration technologies, focusing specifically on the different factors. This thesis therefore identifies the significant differences in the way that SMEs and large companies approach integration technologies, based on the existing literature, theoretical diffusion theories, and resource-based theory. In doing so, the parameters that can be used to explain the adoption of integration technologies in SMEs and large firms are identified, as nature of organisations, company size, integration needs, adoption factors for SMEs and large organisations, and time. Additionally, adoption factors are found and classified into three categories: adoption factors explicit to SMEs, adoption factors explicit to large organisations, and common factors. Based on this, a conceptual model is introduced to explain the different factors that influence adoption between SMEs and large organisations. The empirical contexts of the research are one project on integration technologies adoption, and four case studies on a large firm and three SMEs, which are analysed using an interpretive and qualitative research approach. The evidence suggests that the empirical data complement the identified dimensions nature of organisations, integration needs, company size and time. The empirical data also confirm that the current integration technologies adoption factors reported in the literature can be classified into common factors, factors explicit to SMEs, and factors explicit to large firms, to support a more comprehensive view of this area. An additional factor perceived future prospect has been considered as an influence on adoption in large organisations. The findings of this research can be useful to guide analysts and researchers in determining critical aspects of the complex issues involved for integration technologies adoption, and lead to suggestions for further valid research.

Zugl.: Aachen, Techn. Hochsch., Diss., 2006

Zugl.: Zürich, Univ., Diss., 2007

This study investigates the indicators of the number of ATMs (automated teller machines) in the provinces of Turkey by examining two banks: T.C. Ziraat Bankasi and T. iS Bankasi. The study depends on annual panel data from 1990 to 2004 for seventy-three provinces of Turkey. The information about the number of ATMs of the two banks is gathered after a study in the archives of the banks. In this study it is concluded that the number of ATMs of T. iS Bankasi and T. C. Ziraat Bankasi in the previous year and the total number of branches of the banks in Turkey are the indicators of ATM adoption for both of the banks concerned. However, population has a negative sign for T. C. Ziraat Bankasi which is a state bank whereas it has a positive sign for T. iS Bankasi which is a quasi-private bank. The findings also indicate that the ATM number of T. iS Bankasi is more sensitive to the number of total bank branches.

The Economist (2010) defines frugal innovation as “instead of adding more bells and whistles, strip the products down to their bare essentials.” This definition is becoming an interesting phenomenon for academia and practitioners around the globe. This phenomena have changed the traditional ways of doing business in emerging economies and by 2025, almost 50% of the global organizations will have shifted their focus toward emerging economies because of their lucrative growth potential (Dobbs et al., 2013). The bottom of the pyramid (BOP) is an unexploited market that constitutes more than four billion people living their lives on less than 2 US dollars per day (Prahalad, 2004). Emerging economies have changed the traditional ways of doing business. Weyrauch and Herstatt (2016) identified three criteria for frugality: low cost, focus on core functionalities, and optimized performance level. For example, General Electric (GE), an American Conglomerate, invented a pocket sized ultrasound machine (Vscan) at the low cost of $15,000 that is battery operated, easy to use, and has a performance level, which meets the expectations of the proposed market. It was originally developed for China and other emerging economies; however, after a great success it was adopted by developed economies like the United States (Govindarajan and Trimble, 2012; Hossain et al., 2016). The main idea behind the development of frugal innovation is to cater to the needs of non-affluent customers in emerging economies who cannot afford expensive products (Soni and Krishnan, 2014; Govindarajan and Trimble 2012). Frugal innovations have been developing at three levels: first, MNC like General Electric, have research and development centers in emerging economies such as in India and China. They develop frugal products, for example, Vscan and Siemens fetal heart rate monitor. Second, local multinational organizations in emerging economies develop frugal products such as TATA Nano (the world’s cheapest car) and TATA Swach (a water purifier) by TATA, which is an Indian conglomerate. Third, grassroots entrepreneurs understand the local situation and even without proper education and knowledge often devise quick, smart and low cost solutions to local e.g. MittiCool (a clay made fridge) (Kumar & Puranam, 2012). A number of researchers in the field of frugal innovation have explored the differences and similarities between frugal innovation and other types of innovations (Weyrauch & Herststt, 2016; Zeschky, Winterhalter & Gassmann, 2014; Brem & Wolfram, 2014; Landrum, 2007). Some researchers are trying to identify the link between frugal innovation and sustainability (Kalogerakis, Fischer & Tiwari, 2016; Kahle et al., 2013; Rosca, Arnold & Bendul, 2016; Pansera & Sarkar, 2016). Moreover, other researchers are defining the significance of frugal innovation for multinational organizations in the competitive world (Tiwari & Herstatt, 2012; Anderson & Markides, 2007; Agarwal & Brem, 2012). Human capital is one of the strongest assets for the economic progress of a country. To make the most out of these valuable assets, countries need to invest in healthcare services (World Bank, 2017). Access to healthcare and wellbeing is a human right. Inequalities in healthcare continue to exist despite the progress that has been made worldwide in recent years to improve healthcare access and wellbeing (UN, 2015). Increase in health expenses is recognized as a serious worldwide concern that increases poverty (World Bank, 2017). Frugal innovations have the potential to offer simple and economical solutions to global healthcare challenges. Despite the potential of frugal innovation in healthcare, this context has rarely been studied. The objective of this dissertation is therefore to provide an in-depth analysis of the concept of frugal innovations in healthcare. With this aim, the first study provides a systematic review of frugal innovation in healthcare. Data for this study was collected using Google scholar, EBSCO, Cochrane library, Scopus, and Web of Science. “Frugal innovation in healthcare” and “frugal innovation and healthcare” were the two keywords used to search the data from the year 2006 until 2016. To conduct the analysis for the study, we used the Prisma review methodological approach (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & The Prisma Group, 2009). In total, 14 research articles were included in the study; these were based on the inclusion criteria of language and availability of the articles. The literature was categorized into two clusters: relationship of frugal innovation with sustainability and the importance of frugal innovation for multinational organizations. The study provides an exciting opportunity to advance our knowledge of frugal innovations in healthcare. In study 2, the patterns of frugal innovations in healthcare were examined by closely analyzing the 50 selected cases of frugal innovations in healthcare. Of the 50 selected innovations, various characteristics such as the country of origin, first launch market, type of innovator, type of innovation, type of care, and geographic diffusion were investigated. The finding shows that most of the frugal innovations in healthcare originated in the US (i.e., in the industrialized world). India is the most frequent first launch market for such innovations. Academia is the strongest driver with respect to different types of innovators. Frugal innovations place greater focus on neonatology and general practice, and most of the innovations are product innovations. Moreover, the study examines the relationship among these variables to obtain deeper insight. Together with various limitations, further research areas for frugal innovation include an adequate business model and successful factors responsible for the diffusion of frugal innovation. The study 3 aims to identify the factors that affect the diffusion of frugal innovation in healthcare in developing economies. Two frugal healthcare innovations were selected, including one product innovation and one process innovation (Jaipur Foot and Narayana Hurdayalaya Heart Hospital). Interviews from experts in the field of cardiology and orthopedics were conducted in Pakistan from January 2018 to March 2018. The study was exploratory; therefore, thematic qualitative text analysis was used for the analysis (Kuckartz, 2014). The results show that only 11% of the participants knew the term frugal innovation belonging to the orthopedics medical specialty. Sixty-eight percent of participants were using frugal products or techniques in their hospital, for example, locally made implants, low-cost medications and techniques, government -recommended products, refurbished machines, and locally made stents. The driving force behind using these frugal products and techniques lies in three factors: innovation characteristics and user preferences, patient satisfaction, and social system. A lack of awareness, political reasons and other reasons were the barriers for not adopting the above-mentioned frugal products and techniques in their hospitals. Innovation attributes and recommendations from hospital owners and administration as well as the government were the most important drivers for adopting these innovations. In addition, participants identified hospital administration, seniors and consultants, and government as important stakeholders that are responsible for implementing these particular innovations in hospitals. The study has various limitations and provides additional areas for future research.:Table of Contents 1. Introduction 8 2. Literature Review 18 2.1. Disruptive Innovation 19 2.2. Cost Innovation 20 2.3. Jugaad Innovation 20 2.4. Gandhian Innovation 20 2.5. Reverse Innovation 21 2.6. Frugal Innovation 21 2.7. Rogers’s Theory of Diffusion of Innovation 23 2.8. Diffusion of Innovation in Healthcare 26 2.9. Diffusion of Innovation in Developing and Emerging Economies 29 3. Methodology 35 4. Systematic Review 42 4.1. Sustainability 42 4.2. Capabilities of Organization for Frugal Innovation 47 5. Patterns of Frugal Innovation in Healthcare 56 5.1. Entrepreneur’s Country Of Origin And First Launch Market 56 5.2. Type of Innovator and Type of Innovation 57 5.3. Medical Specialty and Who Healthcare Categories 60 5.4. Geographic Diffusion 61 5.5. Type Of Innovator, Entrepreneur’s Country Of Origin, And First Launch Market 62 5.6. Type of Innovator and Innovation Characteristics 63 5.7. Type Of Innovator, Characteristics Of Innovation, and Geographic Diffusion 64 6. Frugal Innovations in Healthcare: Factors Affecting the Diffusion in Developing Economies (Part 1: Interview results) 66 6.1. Familiarity and Motivational Factors For Using Frugal Innovations 67 6.2. Communication Channels 79 6.3. Barriers and Drivers for the diffusion of specific frugal innovation 83 6.4. Role in Decision-Making 95 7. Frugal Innovations in Healthcare: Factors Affecting the Diffusion in Developing Economies (Part 2: Discussion) 101 7.1. Familiarity and Motivational Factors For Using Frugal Innovations 102 7.2. Communication Channels 106 7.3. Barriers and Drivers for the diffusion of specific frugal innovation 107 7.3.1. Barriers for Non-Adoption 108 7.3.2. Drivers for Adoption of Innovation 109 7.4. Role in Decision-Making 110 8. Conclusion 112 9. References 123 10. Appendix 1 (Questionnaire) 140 11. Appendix 2 (Descriptive of Study 3) 142 12. Selbständigkeitserklärung 143 13. Acknowledgment 144 14. CV 145

This thesis is an analysis of technology diffusion and the long-run institutional impact of the nature of that diffusion. It examines how a growing commercial trading relationship with Lancashire-based millwrights enabled textile industrialisation in late 19th century Bombay, and reflects upon the evolving character of Indian manufacturing and organisational behaviour within and beyond the colonial context, and into 21st century industrial strategy. Drawing upon primary archival material from sources in Britain and India (including historical company records, trade association records, transactional correspondence between Lancashire and Bombay, and administrative records of the India Office in Whitehall), and upon 27 elite interviews with prominent Mumbai-based businessmen and their families, a technological and cultural dependence by manufacturing elites upon the commercial agent is identified. The emplacement of colonial business norms and particularly the use of informal networks, in turn bolstered by a culture for clubbability, appears to influence the distinctly tight-knit, ‘gentlemanly’ character of Indian family business houses established during the late 19th and early 20th century. Applying a mixed-methods approach to technology theory and analysis, the data chapters are split into two parts, respectively concerning info rmation flows and knowledge flows from the UK to Western India. The former explores patterns in technological transactions and decisions governing the diffusion of textile technology that enabled industrial establishment. The latter focuses on the replication of managerial, cultural and business practices following and reflecting upon Bombay’s textile industrialisation; this establishes the observed presence of British ideals of gentlemanly business conduct within informal networks, familial and community ties. Overall, this research highlights how business history may be used as a lens to understand the process of technology diffusion and analyse the reinforcement of culturally-hybrid social norms in peripheral regions via technical or commercial links. In terms of developmental trajectory, moreover, this case study considers how given limited capacity for innovation or capital goods production, strategic supply-side decisions may garner early cumulative value by replicating industrial production, albeit with long-term institutional consequences. This research has implications for future understanding of the development of UK-Commonwealth trading relationships, and how these might foster structural transformation in the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution. While this thesis focuses on the diffusion of physical capital and technology-driven industry, such a narrative exploration of networks and business norms surrounding structural transformation might be pursued based on alternative factors of production including capital investment and flow, or else feasibly extend into other post-colonial regions.

The aim of this thesis is to examine and elucidate the introduction of new first names and the patterns of name giving from a social perspective based on material from baptismal registers. The region I have chosen to examine is Skellefteå and its surroundings 1791-1890. The point of departure is that the name giving may be considered a symbolic indication of the division between "us" and "them", based on constantly changing taste. During the period under examination, 1791-1890, 71 149 first names occur and 582 of which has been defined as new, i.e. first names that, as far as I know, did not exist in the area before the first example. Seen as the percentage of names occurring within different social groups the largest portion of new first names is introduced by the bourgeoisie and the smallest by the agrarian group. The new first names have been categorised as either a name choice or a name formation, with the former category containing more names than the latter. As regards categories of new names the bourgeoisie predominantly utilize name choice while for the agrarian group name formation predominates. The new pattern of name giving I have examined is the polyname system, which expands from the 18th Century onwards. The custom first grows in the name giving of girls, especially if born into the bourgeoisie. This social group also introduces the custom for the boys. When the custom of giving two names becomes too common in the region the bourgeoisie returns increasingly to one first name for the children, or to three or four names for each child. As regards the order of the new or old names, for boys the old name is generally placed first, especially among the agrarian group, if the two names are even in other respects e.g. have the same number of syllables. Once a new first name has been introduced it has to spread to survive. Of the 582 new names 422 spread and 160 do not. To examine the initial diffusion process from both a social and a geographical perspective 23 names have been chosen as representatives of different patterns of diffusion. The diffusion is described in terms of influence spreading from district to district or influence in the immediate surroundings. These two geographical aspects have been treated from a social perspective, in terms of a heterogeneous or homogenous social diffusion respectively. / digitalisering@umu