The purpose of this research was to document the ways in which the pedagogical approaches of technology/engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) were shown to promote change in concept knowledge of eighth grade mathematics students. A mixed method, sequential explanatory multiple embedded case study was used to determine the significance between the T/E DBL intervention and bivariate measurement data concept knowledge. Whole Group quantitative data analysis indicated a statistical significance between pretest and posttest scores. Qualitative data (Interactive Engineering Journals and semi-structured interviews) analyses for the Sub-Group confirmed that students did possess the bivariate data concept knowledge as documented through quantitative results and those gains were directly related to experiences students had while engaged in the T/E DBL intervention. This research demonstrated that the utilization of T/E DBL in an eighth-grade mathematics classroom has the potential to foster a change in concept knowledge of bivariate measurement data through informed design decision-making in a 21st century problem context. This study can be used as a guide for mathematics educators and curriculum developers implementing T/E DBL pedagogy allowing students to learn through contextual experiences. Future research should explore the utilization of T/E DBL to teach additional mathematical concepts at different grade levels. / Doctor of Philosophy / This research demonstrated that the utilization of technology/engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) in an eighth-grade mathematics classroom has the potential to increase mathematical concept knowledge through informed design decision-making in a 21st century problem context. Participants were asked to design a solution to a real-world problem which required mathematics concept knowledge in order for students to make decisions about their design. Participants also kept an Interactive Engineering Journal (IEJ) throughout the design challenge. The results of the mathematics pre/posttest taken before and after the design challenge indicated that students increased their mathematical concept knowledge through their experiences during the design challenge. A small group of participants were selected to participate in IEJ analysis and individual interviews. These data confirmed that students did gain mathematical concept knowledge in connection to their experiences during the design challenge. This study can be used as a guide for mathematics educators and curriculum developers implementing T/E DBL pedagogy allowing students to learn through contextual experiences. Future research should explore the utilization of T/E DBL to teach additional mathematical concepts at different grade levels.

As widespread as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) initiatives and reforms are today in education, a rudimentary problem with these endeavors is being overlooked. In general, education programs and school districts are failing to ensure that elementary teachers who provide children's early academic experiences have the appropriate knowledge of and proclivity toward STEM subjects. This issue is further compounded by the focus centered on mathematics due to accountability requirements leaving very little emphasis on science, and most often, the exclusion of technology and engineering instruction from the curriculum (Blank, 2012; Cunningham, 2009; Lederman and Lederman, 2013; Lewis, Harshbarger, and Dema, 2014; Walker, 2014). At the elementary level, the lack of science instruction and professional development generates a weakness for both pre- and in-service teachers and prompts elevated concerns about teaching science (Goodrum, Cousins, and Kinnear, 1992; Anderson, 2002). Research (Lewis, 1999/2006; Wells, 2014) suggests that one way to address this weakness is through the technological/engineering designed-based approach within the context of integrative STEM education. The purpose of the study was to gain an understanding of change in science instructional content and practice through professional development that educates elementary teachers to implement Technological/Engineering Design Based Learning (T/E DBL) as part of teaching science. The research design was a multiple case study which adhered to a concurrent mixed method approach (Teddlie, and Tashakkori, 2006; Yin, 2003),with four participants who were recruited because of their availability and their grade level teaching assignment that correlated to an analysis of the 2013 science state accountability test, Standards of Learning (Pyle, 2015). Data collected from surveys were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. These data were corroborated with a sweep instrument and assessment rubric analyses, and interview responses to validate the results. Findings from this study revealed that professional development model used in this study was clearly effective in getting elementary teachers to implement T/E DBL. The participants were better able to integrate T/E DBL when planning and designing instructional units and had an improved understanding of the science concepts they were teaching. / Ed. D.

Preparing students to be life-long learners that are career and college ready is a goal of agricultural education. Changing expectations of education have pointed to agriculture educators as potential leaders in the STEM education movement. Literature related to STEM education in agricultural education is lacking in guidance for teachers, administrators, and curriculum developers in integrating academic content related to STEM content areas. A review of STEM education literature coupled with the framework of quantitative reasoning, lead to a conceptualization of a framework for integrative agricultural education. This framework was implemented through a case study to investigate collaborative efforts in curriculum development in agricultural education with a specific focus on integrating mathematics to develop students' quantitative reasoning skills. Teacher characteristics were identified that seemed to support the implementation of integrative agricultural education practices. Teaching and planning strategies were also identified in the case study. Recommendations suggest support of collaboration between agriculture and mathematics teachers would best support curriculum design and aid in the quality of instruction that follows. / Ph. D. / Agricultural education teachers work to prepare students to be life-long learners that are career and college ready. STEM education has become vogue in education. As expectations change about what students should learn and how they learn it, agriculture educators have potential to be leaders in the STEM movement. STEM education in agricultural education is lacking in guidance for teachers, administrators, and curriculum developers in integrating academic content related to STEM content areas. This dissertation presents a conceptualization of a framework for integrative agricultural education that combines elements characteristic of STEM education coupled with the concept of quantitative reasoning. The framework was used to research collaborative efforts in curriculum development in agricultural education with a specific focus on integrating mathematics to develop students’ quantitative reasoning skills. Results provide teacher characteristics that seemed to support implementation of integrative agricultural education practices. Teaching and planning strategies were also identified that lead to recommendations suggesting support of collaboration between agriculture and mathematics teachers would best support curriculum design and aid in the quality of instruction that follows.

With the recent release of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (NGSS Lead States, 2014b) science educators were expected to teach engineering content and practices within their curricula. However, technology and engineering (T&E) educators have been expected to teach content and practices from engineering and other disciplines since the release of the Standards for Technological Literacy (ITEA/ITEEA, 2000/2002/2007). Requisite to the preparation of globally competitive STEM literate individuals is the intentional, concurrent teaching of science, technology, and engineering concepts. Many studies have examined the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1987) of science and T&E educators, but none have examined the science PCK of T&E educators. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent of the relationship between T&E educator’s science and T&E preparation experiences, and their teaching of science content and practices. This study, which employed a fully integrated mixed methods design (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2006), was conducted to inform the pre- and in-service preparation needs for T&E educators. A random sample of 55 Foundations of Technology (FoT) teachers across 12 school systems within one state participated in an online survey, leading to eight teachers being purposefully selected for classroom observations. Data collected from the surveys and classroom observations were analyzed through Spearman’s rho tests to examine relationships between preparation factors and teaching of science content and practices. These data were corroborated with curriculum content analyses, classroom observations, and interview responses to validate the results. Analyses of the data across all three methods revealed significant correlations between many preparation factors and the teaching of science content and practices. Specifically the amount of high school and undergraduate physics courses, and T&E and science in-service delivered were found to have statistically significant, strong positive correlations. These findings suggest T&E educators with increased amounts of these preparation experiences can be expected to teach science content and practices more proficiently. The findings and conclusions drawn from the data analyses provide implications for science and T&E educators, researchers, preservice programs, and in-service professional development efforts. The discussion and implications suggest the need to conduct replication studies in different contexts. / Ph. D.

In response to STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) educational reform, pedagogical approaches such as technological/engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) have received increased emphasis as a means to enrich student learning and develop their higher-order cognitive competencies. Despite students exposure to the T and E of STEM as a means to make connections and improve learning (NAE and NRC, 2009), there still exists minimal evidence such experiences have a positive impact on their cognition and achievement (Honey, Pearson, and Schweingruber, 2014). Additionally, although research has well illustrated the design cognition of professional designers, and even students at the collegiate level, few investigations of high school students' cognitive activity during designing has been undertaken (Crismond and Adams, 2012; Hynes, 2012; Lammi and Becker, 2013). Furthermore, as researchers have begun to address this gap, broad coding schemes have been employed, describing students' cognitive efforts in terms of comprehensive categories such as formulation, analysis, and synthesis. However, as previous research has demonstrated nuances among existing categories (Purcell, Gero, Edwards, and McNeill, 1996), what has yet to be done is describe K-12 students' cognitive behaviors in terms of these underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to characterize students' cognitive processes during engineering design at a more distinct level, which can increase understanding and begin to address the minimal attempts to 'connect research findings on how people design with what teachers need to understand and do to help K-16 students improve their design capability and learn through design activities" (Crismond and Adams, 2012, p. 738). The methodology of this study was informed by procedures of cognitive science and verbal protocol analysis. The primary form of data analyzed was audio and video recordings of the design task. The recorded data, in transcript form, was coded using the Purcell, Gero, Edwards, and McNeill (1996) framework. These coded data were then analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings from this study revealed that significant differences existed between high school seniors who took pre-engineering courses, and those who did not when engaged in Consulting Information about the Problem (Cp) and in considering System issues, which examined the problem from the point of view of the user. Additionally, Proposing a Solution (Ps), Postponing a Design Action (Pd), and Looking Back (Lb) approached a value of statistical significance in differences between the groups of participants. Findings also characterized how students exert the most and least amount of their cognitive effort in relation to the Problem Domain: Degree of Abstraction and Strategy Classification coding schemes. / Ph. D.

This study examined the effects of computational labs in Business Calculus classes used at a single, private institution on student outcomes of conceptual understanding of calculus and attitudes towards mathematics. The first manuscript addresses the changes in conceptual understanding through multiple-method research design, a quantitative survey given pre and post study and qualitative student comments, found no significant gains in conceptual knowledge as measured by a concept inventory, however, student comments revealed valuable knowledge demonstrated through reflection on and articulation of how specific calculus concepts could be used in real world applications. The second manuscript presents results to the effects on attitudes toward mathematics, studied through multiple-method research design, using a quantitative survey given at two intervals, pre and post, and analysis of student comments, which showed that students that participated in the labs had a smaller decline in attitude, although not statistically significant, than students that did not complete the labs and the labs were most impactful on students that had previously taken calculus; student comments overwhelmingly demonstrate that students felt and appreciated that the labs allowed them to see how calculus could be applied outside the classroom. Overall students felt the labs were beneficial in the development of advantageous habits, taught some a skill they hope to further develop and study, and provided several recommendations for improvement in future implementation. Collectively, this research serves as a foundation for the effectiveness of computational tools employed in general education mathematics courses, which is not currently a widespread practice. / Doctor of Philosophy / Students from a variety of majors often leave their introductory calculus courses without seeing the connections and utility it may have to their discipline and may find it uninspiring and boring. To address these issues, there is a need for educators to continue to develop and research potentially positive approaches to impacting students' experience with calculus. This study discusses a method of doing so, by studying students' understanding of and attitude toward calculus in a one-semester Business Calculus course using computational labs to introduce students to calculus concepts often in context of a business scenario. No significant gains in conceptual knowledge were found as measured by a concept inventory; however, student comments revealed valuable knowledge demonstrated through articulation of how specific calculus concepts could be used in real world applications. Students that participated in the labs also had a smaller decline in attitude than students that did not complete the labs. Student comments overwhelmingly demonstrate that students felt and appreciated that the labs allowed them to see how calculus could be applied outside the classroom. The labs were most impactful on students that had previously taken calculus. Overall students felt the labs were beneficial in the development of advantageous habits such as persistence, utilizing resources, and precision, introduced them to coding, a skill they hope to further develop and study, and students provided several recommendations for improvement in future implementation. This research provides a foundation for the effectiveness of computational tools used in general education mathematics courses.

The Technological Immersion Learning Theory (TILT) was developed through a classic grounded theory study in the seminal tradition of Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Glaser (1978, 1992, 1998, 2001, 2007). The purpose of the study was to investigate an exemplary case of self-determined technology enthusiasts in the hopes of generating a substantive grounded theory that conceptualizes their experiences and concerns. Twelve unstructured interviews of amateur radio enthusiasts from the eastern United States provided the initial / primary data for this study. Experimenting and self-teaching in technological activities was highlighted as the main concern of the participants. The basic social process (BSP) of technological immersion learning (TIL) emerged as a theoretical construct and core variable that illuminates the experiences of individuals immersed in a community of practice, where hands-on engagement with technology is a primary activity. Adventuring, Affirmation, Doing Technology, Experimenting, Overcoming Challenge, Self-teaching, and Social Networking were properties of technological immersion learning that interact dialectically in an amplifying causal loop, with Problem solving and Designing as active sub processes in response to unmet challenges. TIL occurs cyclically in three stages, beginning with Induction, a credentialing stage wherein the neophyte is prepared with the necessary knowledge and skill to become a novice participant in an activity. The transition from Induction into the Immersion phase is a status passage whereby the novice is absorbed into the technical culture of the group and commences autonomous active participation in hands-on experimenting. Hands-on experiences with experimenting, problem solving and social interactions provide diverse learning and affirmation for the doer and multiple sources of feedback that promote sustained engagement. The transition into the Maturation phase proceeds gradually over time, with prolonged engagement and cumulative gains in knowledge, skill, and experience. Maturation is a quasi-stable state that remains responsive to new contexts as a random-walk process, wherein trigger events can initiate new cycles of technological immersion learning in a perpetually evolving process of personal development. Engagement, Empowerment, and Self-Actualization are underlying dimensions of the TIL basic social process that provide the impetus for continued persistence and personal development. / Ph. D. / This research was undertaken to investigate the unique phenomenon of people who successfully pursue complex technological activities as a pastime, yet may possess no formal training in their field. This example of informal learning is little charted and warranted deeper study through grounded theory research. The study was conducted utilizing the classic grounded theory method that was pioneered by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s for the specific purpose of generating theory from empirical data. The outcome of the study was the <i>Technological Immersion Learning Theory (TILT)</i>, a new theory of learning that highlights the importance of technological activities as a foundation for transdisciplinary learning. <i>TILT</i> is an organic theory of learning rigorously grounded in data to conceptualize the latent behavior patterns of individuals immersed in a community of practice devoted to hands-on experimenting and learning through technology. The technical, social, and psychological attributes of TILT illuminate complex technological environments where sustained engagement and multidimensional feedback can promote learning and personal development. As a basis of learning, technology is intertwined with virtually every aspect of human experience, transcending the artificial boundaries of academic disciplines. <i>TILT</i> offers an empirical model for the study of technology as a foundation of education relevant for the modern technological world.

The research presented in this study investigates the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on teacher self-efficacy with delivering design-based learning to elementary students and identifies what resources and support teachers need to administer online or blended learning delivery of design-based learning with elementary students in the current environment. The population was elementary teachers teaching STEM content and this study included a sample of four elementary STEM teachers teaching in rural and suburban communities. Each participating teacher completed the Teacher Efficacy and Attitudes Toward STEM Survey (T-STEM) (Friday Institute for Educational Innovation, 2012) to reveal their overall self-efficacy with delivering STEM content, followed by participating in a semi-structured interview consisting of queries targeting both research questions. This qualitative analysis revealed a temporary decrease in teachers' self-efficacy at the beginning of the shift to a virtual environment. A lack of student access to resources at home, the teachers' lack of control and support for the student in a synchronous manner, and a change in STEM education as a priority were revealed as contributors to this temporary decrease in the teachers' self-efficacy. To remediate this, teachers reported condensing activities and the Engineering Design Process to accommodate the virtual environment for a traditionally hands-on instructional strategy. Teachers cited fellow educator support, previous coursework, additional time, and access to teacher resources as resources and support that would be beneficial in the current environment. / Doctor of Philosophy / The research presented in this study investigates the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on teacher self-efficacy, or confidence, in using an instructional approach to STEM education with elementary students and identifies what resources and support teachers need to use this instructional strategy online or in blended learning settings, a combination of both online and in-person education. The instructional strategy, design-based learning, allows students to use design-thinking to apply the knowledge they are learning to a construct (Doppelt et al., 2008). This study included a sample of four elementary STEM teachers teaching in rural and suburban communities. Each participating teacher completed the Teacher Efficacy and Attitudes Toward STEM Survey (T-STEM) (Friday Institute for Educational Innovation, 2012) to reveal their overall self-efficacy with delivering STEM content, followed by participating in an interview. Prominent topics, or themes, revealed from the interviews revealed a temporary decrease in the teachers' self-efficacy at the beginning of the shift to a virtual environment at the beginning of the global pandemic. A lack of student access to resources at home, the teachers' lack of control and support for the student in a real-time manner, and a change in STEM education as a priority were revealed as contributors to this temporary decrease in the teachers' self-efficacy. To address this, the teachers reported condensing activities and the Engineering Design Process to accommodate the virtual environment for a traditionally hands-on instructional strategy. Teachers cited fellow educator support, previous coursework, additional time, and access to teacher resources as resources and support that would be beneficial in the current education system.

National reforms, such as the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), Common Core State Standards Mathematical Practices (CCSMP), and Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P-21) challenge educators to provide students with dynamic learning experiences that address the needs of learners in today's society. These new standards represent a paradigm shift away from the meticulous content memorization of many state standards, toward more dynamic measures addressing the whole learner. To truly develop the leaders, innovators and thinkers of tomorrow, educators are beginning to look beyond the traditional schoolhouse walls to intertwine intentionally designed non-formal learning experiences within formal education. These non-formal experiences serve to connect seemingly disparate skills and knowledge through real-life, hands-on, minds-on learning. Embracing partnerships with individuals and organizations beyond the classroom fosters an environment seamlessly connecting life, work, and school. Although the importance of student engagement in 21st century skills is at the forefront of current educational reforms, little has been done to assess this engagement. While standards such as Common Core State Standards and NGSS have measures in place for domain-specific 21st century skills, aside from PISA's cross-curricular problem solving test, there are few resources to measure non-domain specific engagement in these skills. Without a viable measure, detractors can argue that the term 21st century skills is meaningless and it distracts students from learning core content. Bridging the divide between skills and content is essential to build support for skills that reach far beyond isolated subject-matter knowledge. Engaging students in these skills through non-formal learning, and measuring the extent of student engagement in these skills will drive the development of future opportunities for students to hone them in creative ways. The purpose of this study was to measure student engagement in 21st century skills while they participate in a non-formal learning experience. Once a viable measurement was developed, it was utilized to measure student percent of engagement in each specific 21st century Learning and Innovation skill (creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving), Life and Career skill (flexibility and adaptability, initiative, self-direction and productivity, leadership, responsibility and accountability), and Socio-Cultural skill (communication and collaboration) while students participated in the intentionally designed non-formal learning experience of orienteering. The study also described what characterizes a viable non-formal learning experience facilitating student engagement in 21st century skills. Analysis of data revealed the non-formal learning experience of orienteering engages students in 21st century Learning and Innovation Skills, Life and Career Skills and Socio-Cultural Skills. Specifically, communication and collaboration, critical thinking skills and initiative, self-direction and productivity comprise the largest student engagement. Engagement in leadership, responsibility and accountability, problem solving, and flexibility and adaptability are also evident. This particular non-formal learning experience facilitates very little student engagement of creativity and innovation. While not generalizable to a larger population, this study confirms that students immersed in a non-formal learning activity will become engaged in essential 21st century skills for school, life and work, therefore, this type of learning is a valuable part of instructional time within the formal instructional day and beyond. / Ph. D.

The Federal Government has called for an overhaul of STEM education, saying that we as a nation must increase "opportunities for young Americans to gain strong STEM skills" (Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2013, p.1). Economically, these skills expand beyond those that make good doctors, professors, and engineers; there is a world of jobs going unfilled because our students are graduating without the skills or knowledge that such opportunities exist. To increase the future STEM workforce, we first need to increase student awareness of a variety of STEM careers early on (Tai et al., 2006). Career decisions are being made by students as early as middle school (Tai et al., 2006); and very little if any STEM career exploration is occurring before high school. This lack of early exposure to STEM career options means that students are likely making decisions about career choices without accurate information; choosing a path before knowing about all the options. This research is broken into two manuscripts; the first of which examined the impacts of design-based learning and scientific inquiry curriculum treatments with embedded career content on the career interest of fifth-grade students as compared to traditional classroom methods. It found that there is an upward trend in career interest with the use of these curriculum treatments, but it is not a significant change, likely due to the short time period of the unit and/or small n. The second manuscript examined the effect of a design-based learning curriculum treatment implementation for a single unit on Radford City Schools fifth-grade students' STEM attitudes and interest in STEM careers through a pre/post design. The study showed statistically significant growth in overall STEM attitudes and within the science subtest specifically. Career interest in the general field of science showed a significant increase, while a change of interest in specific career areas was not statistically significant. Collectively, this research serves as a foundation for the effectiveness of having career awareness and career exposure opportunities built into active learning instruction, which does not occur currently. Built on secondary principles, but at a level appropriate for elementary students, using active learning opportunities with embedded career connections has the potential to be an effective solution to students' premature exclusion of STEM-related study and work options identified in the literature. Through preliminary exposure to this unique combination at the elementary level, a stronger foundation can be built for both ability and interest in STEM. / Ph. D. / The Federal Government has called for an overhaul of STEM education, saying that we as a nation must increase “opportunities for young Americans to gain strong STEM skills” (Office of Science and Technology Policy, 2013, p.1). Economically, these skills expand beyond those that make good doctors, professors, and engineers; there is a world of jobs going unfilled because our students are graduating without the skills or knowledge that such opportunities exist. To increase the future STEM workforce, we first need to increase student awareness of a variety of STEM careers early on (Tai et al., 2006). Career decisions are being made by students as early as middle school (Tai et al., 2006); and very little if any STEM career exploration is occurring before high school. This lack of early exposure to STEM career options means that students are likely making decisions about career choices without accurate information; choosing a path before knowing about all the options. This research is broken into two manuscripts; the first of which examined the impacts of design-based learning and scientific inquiry curriculum treatments with embedded career content on the career interest of fifth-grade students as compared to traditional classroom methods. It found that there is an upward trend in career interest with the use of these curriculum treatments, but it is not a significant change, likely due to the short time period of the unit and/or small n. The second manuscript examined the effect of a design-based learning curriculum treatment implementation for a single unit on Radford City Schools fifth-grade students’ STEM attitudes and interest in STEM careers through a pre/post design. The study showed statistically significant growth in overall STEM attitudes and within the science subtest specifically. Career interest in the general field of science showed a significant increase, while a change of interest in specific career areas was not statistically significant. Collectively, this research serves as a foundation for the effectiveness of having career awareness and career exposure opportunities built into active learning instruction, which does not occur currently. Built on secondary principles, but at a level appropriate for elementary students, using active learning opportunities with embedded career connections has the potential to be an effective solution to students’ premature exclusion of STEM-related study and work options identified in the literature. Through preliminary exposure to this unique combination at the elementary level, a stronger foundation can be built for both ability and interest in STEM.