As widespread as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) initiatives and reforms are today in education, a rudimentary problem with these endeavors is being overlooked. In general, education programs and school districts are failing to ensure that elementary teachers who provide children's early academic experiences have the appropriate knowledge of and proclivity toward STEM subjects. This issue is further compounded by the focus centered on mathematics due to accountability requirements leaving very little emphasis on science, and most often, the exclusion of technology and engineering instruction from the curriculum (Blank, 2012; Cunningham, 2009; Lederman and Lederman, 2013; Lewis, Harshbarger, and Dema, 2014; Walker, 2014). At the elementary level, the lack of science instruction and professional development generates a weakness for both pre- and in-service teachers and prompts elevated concerns about teaching science (Goodrum, Cousins, and Kinnear, 1992; Anderson, 2002). Research (Lewis, 1999/2006; Wells, 2014) suggests that one way to address this weakness is through the technological/engineering designed-based approach within the context of integrative STEM education. The purpose of the study was to gain an understanding of change in science instructional content and practice through professional development that educates elementary teachers to implement Technological/Engineering Design Based Learning (T/E DBL) as part of teaching science. The research design was a multiple case study which adhered to a concurrent mixed method approach (Teddlie, and Tashakkori, 2006; Yin, 2003),with four participants who were recruited because of their availability and their grade level teaching assignment that correlated to an analysis of the 2013 science state accountability test, Standards of Learning (Pyle, 2015). Data collected from surveys were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. These data were corroborated with a sweep instrument and assessment rubric analyses, and interview responses to validate the results. Findings from this study revealed that professional development model used in this study was clearly effective in getting elementary teachers to implement T/E DBL. The participants were better able to integrate T/E DBL when planning and designing instructional units and had an improved understanding of the science concepts they were teaching. / Ed. D.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a curriculum design-based (CDB) professional development model on K–12 teachers’ capacity to integrate engineering education in the classroom. This teacher professional development approach differs from other training programs where teachers learn how to use a standard curriculum and adopt it in their classrooms. In a CDB professional development model teachers actively design lessons, student resources, and assessments for their classroom instruction. In other science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, CDB professional development has been reported to (a) position teachers as architects of change, (b) provide a professional learning vehicle for educators to reflect on instructional practices and develop content knowledge, (c) inspire a sense of ownership in curriculum decision-making among teachers, and (d) use an instructional approach that is coherent with teachers’ interests and professional goals. The CDB professional development program in this study used the Explore-Create-Share (ECS) framework as an instructional model to support teacher-led curriculum design and implementation. To evaluate the impact of the CDB professional development and associated ECS instructional model, three research studies were conducted. In each study, the participants completed a six-month CDB professional development program, the PTC STEM Certificate Program, that included sixty-two instructional contact hours. Participants learned about industry and education engineering concepts, tested engineering curricula, collaborated with K–12 educators and industry professionals, and developed project-based engineering curricula using the ECS framework. The first study evaluated the impact of the CDB professional development program on teachers’ engineering knowledge, self-efficacy in designing engineering curriculum, and instructional practice in developing project-based engineering units. The study included twenty-six teachers and data was collected pre-, mid-, and post-program using teacher surveys and a curriculum analysis instrument. The second study evaluated teachers’ perceptions of the ECS model as a curriculum authoring tool and the quality of the curriculum units they developed. The study included sixty-two participants and data was collected post-program using teacher surveys and a curriculum analysis instrument. The third study evaluated teachers’ experiences implementing ECS units in the classroom with a focus on identifying the benefits, challenges and solutions associated with project-based engineering in the classroom. The study included thirty-one participants and data was collected using an open-ended survey instrument after teachers completed implementation of the ECS curriculum unit. Results of these three studies indicate that teachers can be prepared to integrate engineering in the classroom using a CDB professional development model. Teachers reported an increase in engineering content knowledge, improved their self-efficacy in curriculum planning, and developed high quality instructional units that were aligned to engineering design practices and STEM educational standards. The ECS instructional model was acknowledged as a valuable tool for developing and implementing engineering education in the classroom. Teachers reported that ECS curriculum design aligned with their teaching goals, provided a framework to integrate engineering with other subject-area concepts, and incorporated innovative teaching strategies. After implementing ECS units in the classroom, teachers reported that the ECS model engaged students in engineering design challenges that were situated in a real world context and required the application of interdisciplinary content knowledge and skills. Teachers also reported a number of challenges related to scheduling, content alignment, and access to resources. In the face of these obstacles, teachers presented a number of solutions that included optimization of one’s teaching practice, being resource savvy, and adopting a growth mindset.

The goal of this study was to examine the use of a technological and engineering design based learning (T/E DBL) challenge as a strategy for facilitating student comprehension of nonfiction/informational text inclusive of graphical devices. The data for this mixed methods exploratory case study were collected using a variety of instruments which assessed the prior knowledge, general graphical device comprehension, and reading comprehension of both familiar and unfamiliar texts in order to form a detailed picture of the six participants throughout the study. The six participants were examined as whole group and as reading level dyads (below, on, and above grade level) as they progressed through three T/E DBL challenges that were developed to support graphical device comprehension instruction. T/E DBL was found to increase reader text interactions and graphical device usage, support the development of general graphical device comprehension for diagrams and tables, improve comprehension of unfamiliar science texts, and provide particular benefit to below grade level readers. The results of this study demonstrate the need for further research into the benefits of T/E DBL for reading instruction, particularly of graphical devices. This research should include a further exploration of the potential benefits for graphical device comprehension and comprehension of unfamiliar science and engineering texts that include graphical devices, as well as the curricular, training, and implementation needs. / Doctor of Philosophy / This study examined how challenging fifth grade students to design a technology to meet an engineering need can support student understanding of nonfiction/informational texts which include informational graphics (graphical devices). The participants of this study were asked to create designs of different types of technology which would benefit from the information in the provided informational texts and graphics. A variety of data were gathered on six fifth grade participants as they worked through a serious of design challenges that were paired with reading passages that included graphics (graphical devices). Graphical device instruction using design challenges was found to increase readers' interactions with texts and their usage of graphical devices, support the development of comprehension for diagrams and tables, improve comprehension of unfamiliar science texts, and provide particular benefit to below grade level readers. The results of this study demonstrate the need for further research into the benefits of using design challenges for reading instruction, particularly of graphical devices.

Computer Science (CS) is among the fastest-growing fields. To fill the abundance of positions in Computer Science, early learning experiences should be implemented to promote interest in the field. This research aims to observe the impact of a design-based computer science treatment on 5th-grade students' interest in computer science careers. The treatment consisted of nine one-hour lessons in which the researcher introduced computer science content to students. At the end of the treatment, participants developed an application to study for a state-wide science assessment. To measure a change in students' career interests following the treatment, an adapted version of the STEM Career Interest Survey (STEM-CIS), grounded by Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), was implemented using a pre-survey-post-survey design. Qualitative data was collected using focus groups to explain quantitative findings further. The samples' post-survey (39.62) mean was greater than the pre-survey mean (37.17), but the paired t-test was just above the statical significance level of 0.05, t(28)= -2.04, p =.051. There was a statistically significant increase for the survey items that align with the SCCT aspects Interest (t(30)= -2.30, p =.028) and Contextual Support (t(30)= -2.25, p =.032). The researcher identified several themes related to a positive perception toward the treatment and computer science and general during qualitative data analysis. These findings indicate a design-based computer science treatment can increase 5th-grade students' interest in computer science careers. / Doctor of Philosophy / Learning experiences influence an individual's career development. This dissertation observes the impact of a design-based computer science project in a 5th-grade classroom. The researcher implemented a pre-survey-post-survey design to measure change following the treatment. The researcher calculated the difference between survey means and ran a matched paired t-test to determine the statistical significance. The results of the paired t-test were not statistically significant. Still, the survey items that aligned with interest and contextual support had a statistically significant increase following the treatment. Additionally, the researcher conducted focus groups to collect qualitative data to explain quantitative findings further. Content analysis of the qualitative data revealed participants had a positive perception of the treatment and computer science in general. These results imply that a design-based computer science treatment can increase 5th-grade students' interest in computer science careers.

The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) has influenced educators to adapt design thinking (DT) for technology and engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) because they believe design-based problems introduce authentic, open-ended challenges valuable for developing hands-on problem-solving. These integrative real-world challenges bring learners into contact with unfamiliar problems and critical incidents which kindle learners' transformative learning related to far transfer and self-directed learning. Critical incidents also correlate with learners' immediate emotional reactions to unfamiliar knowledge and challenging open-ended hands-on performances. These emotional reactions correspond with learners' critical reflection (CR) transformative for them. CR about threshold experiences relates to changes of perspective useful for managing design thinking in future design-related challenges. In addition to improved self-regulation during DT, learners experiencing critical incidents understand domain content better, and they see how to leverage it in the future. However, while researchers assume CR happens throughout design-based learning (DBL) due to its complex, open-ended challenges, the research has not documented learners' critical experiences and perceptions related to their changes of perspective during DT, nor has the research deeply described reflection critical to transformative, threshold experiences and changes of perspective related to learning. Therefore, a flexible framework for supporting learners' management of critical incidents during DT does not exist. Because learners' hands-on experiences connected to critical reflection are less understood in design thinking (DT), educators and practitioners of T/E DBL know less about scaffolding for DBL during its iterative, decision-making phases in which critical incidents likely occur. Research suggests scaffolding for critical reflection correlates with more effective, iterative design-based ideation and prototyping—for learners and experts alike. After reviewing research in T/E, the scholarship of teaching and learning, health and human sciences, and the humanistic studies, this two-phase qualitative study identifies themes about designers' emotions and exigences related to hands-on critical reflection during DT. Using the themes from this literature review, Phase 1 of this study defines critical reflection and critical reflective writing (CRW). Then, the study instruments a CRW prompt for integrating CRW into T/E DBL. Since CRW is a reflective tool that slows thinking, Phase 1 of the study uses CRW to slow DT in its iterative phases, allowing participants to express their critical, threshold experiences and changes of perspective which happen during their active, hands-on, design-based problem solving. Phase 1 of this study analyzes the nature and perceptions from three designers' CRW and discloses themes about their CR and DT for the threshold experiences and critical incidents they describe within the recursive phases of prototyping and optimization. After collecting participants' CRW during these phases, the study interprets themes for these participant's critical incidents, threshold concepts, and related changes of perspective. Phase 2 of this study uses retrospective focus group interviews with the same three participants in their design teams to describe participants' experiences and perceived relations between their CR, CRW, DT, and T/E DBL. After data collection from both phases, this qualitative study analyzes the CRWs and interview transcripts through inductive coding. The results for Phase 1 include categorical themes for Emotional Awareness, Social Awareness and Communication, Awareness of the Nature of Real-World Problem-Solving, and Holistic Awareness for Order and Arrangement in Hierarchical Problem-Solving. The categorical themes for Phase 2 include Stepping Back and Getting Perspective, Making Progress, Materializing Abstract Thinking and Less Realized Real-World Experiences, and Exploring Future Integration for CRW. Some of the categorical themes overlap for Phase 1 and Phase 2. This study contributes a broader awareness for less-expert designers' emotional exigences, threshold concepts, and transformative experiences happening during DBL, as documented through their CRW. The study informs best practices for scaffolding T/E DBL for CR, so gaps can be narrowed between less-expert and more-expert design-related performances during hands-on iteration and prototyping. This research also informs recent cross-curricular, humanistic research that integrates writing and T/E DBL in the STEM disciplines, K-18, so learners can identify and describe experiences related to metacognition and self-regulated learning across ages, disciplines, and design settings in support of self-directed learning. / Doctor of Philosophy / The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning encourages educators to adapt experiential learning and design thinking (DT) for integrative technology and engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) because design-based problems introduce authentic, open-ended challenges valuable for developing learners' hands-on problem-solving. Integrative real-world challenges bring learners into contact with unfamiliar problems and critical incidents which kindle their critical reflection and perpetuate their transformative learning. Critical incidents correlate with learners' immediate emotional reactions to unfamiliar knowledge and challenging open-ended hands-on performances. These emotional reactions appear to correspond with critical reflection and transformative learning caused by critical incidents and threshold experiences which change their perspectives about what they know and do. Through critical reflection about critical incidents, they also see how to leverage new learning for the future. However, while researchers assume critical reflection happens throughout design-based learning (DBL) because of its complex, open-ended challenges, designers' critical experiences and perceptions related to their changes of perspective during DT have not been described in the scholarship. Therefore, a flexible framework for scaffolding learners' critical reflection necessary for managing complex, critical incidents during their design thinking does not exist. Because learners' hands-on experiences connected to critical reflection are less understood in design thinking (DT), educators and practitioners of T/E DBL know less about scaffolding for DBL during its iterative, decision-making phases of DT where critical incidents occur often during problem-solving. This two-phase qualitative study prompts, analyzes, and describes critical reflective writing and semi-structured interviews for three participants in their design teams to understand their experiences related to transformative learning happening while they are designing. The results for Phase 1 include categorical themes for Emotional Awareness, Social Awareness and Communication, Awareness of the Nature of Real-World Problem-Solving, and Holistic Awareness for Order and Arrangement in Hierarchical Problem-Solving. The categorical themes for Phase 2 include Stepping Back and Getting Perspective, Making Progress, Materializing Abstract Thinking and Less Realized Real-World Experiences, and Exploring Future Integration for Critical Reflective Writing. The study's results help educators understand what learners are doing and experiencing when they are in the middle of their design thinking. This study also shows ways to think about scaffolding CRW to support learning during DT when hands-on problem-solving becomes complex and uncertain.

Technological/engineering design based learning (T/E DBL) provides a context in which students may utilize content knowledge and skills to develop prototype solutions to real-world problems. In science education, design based science (DBS) utilizes technological/engineering design based approaches in science education as a means for enhancing the purpose of and relevance for scientific inquiry by contextualizing it within the goal of developing a solution to a real-world problem. This study addressed the need to investigate the ways in which students utilize higher order thinking skills, demonstrated through the use of knowledge associated with declarative, schematic, and strategic cognitive demand when in engaged in DBS activities. The purpose of this study was to determine what relationships exist between engagement in DBS and changes in students' depth of understanding of the science concepts associated with the development of design solutions. Specifically, the study determined how students' abilities to demonstrate an understanding of the science concepts, required by assessments of different cognitive demand, change as they were engaged in a design-based science unit associated with heat transfer. Utilizing two assessment instruments, a pre/post-1/post-2 test and content analysis of student design portfolios based on Wells (2012) and utilizing Li's (2001) system to code student responses, the following research question was addressed: What changes in students' science concept knowledge (declarative, schematic, and strategic demand) are evidenced following engagement in design based learning activities? Although the results are not generalizable to other populations due to the limitations associated with the study, it can be concluded that design based learning activities incorporated in science courses can foster higher order thinking. Results from the study suggests that students' abilities to demonstrate their understanding of certain science concepts through higher order thinking, including utilizing concept knowledge strategically in open-ended problem solving, increased following engagement in design based learn activities. Results have implications in technological/engineering design education, in science education, and in integrative STEM education. Implications include the utility of design portfolios as both an assessment instrument and learning tool to ensure that concept knowledge is explicitly connected to and used in the design activity. / Ed. D.

This research explores how design-based learning can be used as a pedagogical strategy in K-12 classrooms to foster students' 21st century skills in such areas as communication, collaboration, and critical thinking. The research aims to identify what students and teachers who participated in a design-based learning environment perceived to be the benefits and challenges of the project. The findings are used to suggest strategies that can be used to capitalize on the benefits and mitigate the challenges of the strategy. This research employs a multiple case study methodology to investigate the unique perspectives of three audiences who participated in the study: (1) an eighth grade English teacher, (2) an eighth grade social studies teacher, and (3) fifty eighth grade students. It gives a detailed description of the results of post-implementation interviews during which participants reported on what they perceived to be the benefits and challenges of the project. The results of the interviews are utilized as the primary data source for the findings. The study reveals that a majority of the participants perceived that students benefitted from the environment. They gained skills in communication and collaboration, developed the ability to empathize by exploring multiple perspectives, gained real-world experience that prepared them for their future by solving problems they identified in their immediate world, and gained knowledge and skills from a variety of disciplines. The teachers also benefitted from the environment in that they gained a new respect for their students' skills and abilities, explored and re-defined their own pedagogical philosophies, and improved their own design thinking skills. While participants reported multiple benefits to the learning environment, they also acknowledged several challenges. Time was a challenge for everyone involved. Teachers perceived keeping students motivated when they faced ambiguity and assessing students to be a challenge. They also noted that administrative support for design-based learning is a challenge that must be overcome in order for wide-scale adoption to be realized. While students also identified many challenges to the environment, they consistently acknowledged that the challenging aspects - communication, collaboration, exploring multiple perspectives, managing real-world constraints, and critical thinking - were ultimately beneficial. The findings translate to an overarching message that design-based learning is hard, but it's worth it. / Ph. D.

In response to STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) educational reform, pedagogical approaches such as technological/engineering design-based learning (T/E DBL) have received increased emphasis as a means to enrich student learning and develop their higher-order cognitive competencies. Despite students exposure to the T and E of STEM as a means to make connections and improve learning (NAE and NRC, 2009), there still exists minimal evidence such experiences have a positive impact on their cognition and achievement (Honey, Pearson, and Schweingruber, 2014). Additionally, although research has well illustrated the design cognition of professional designers, and even students at the collegiate level, few investigations of high school students' cognitive activity during designing has been undertaken (Crismond and Adams, 2012; Hynes, 2012; Lammi and Becker, 2013). Furthermore, as researchers have begun to address this gap, broad coding schemes have been employed, describing students' cognitive efforts in terms of comprehensive categories such as formulation, analysis, and synthesis. However, as previous research has demonstrated nuances among existing categories (Purcell, Gero, Edwards, and McNeill, 1996), what has yet to be done is describe K-12 students' cognitive behaviors in terms of these underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to characterize students' cognitive processes during engineering design at a more distinct level, which can increase understanding and begin to address the minimal attempts to 'connect research findings on how people design with what teachers need to understand and do to help K-16 students improve their design capability and learn through design activities" (Crismond and Adams, 2012, p. 738). The methodology of this study was informed by procedures of cognitive science and verbal protocol analysis. The primary form of data analyzed was audio and video recordings of the design task. The recorded data, in transcript form, was coded using the Purcell, Gero, Edwards, and McNeill (1996) framework. These coded data were then analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings from this study revealed that significant differences existed between high school seniors who took pre-engineering courses, and those who did not when engaged in Consulting Information about the Problem (Cp) and in considering System issues, which examined the problem from the point of view of the user. Additionally, Proposing a Solution (Ps), Postponing a Design Action (Pd), and Looking Back (Lb) approached a value of statistical significance in differences between the groups of participants. Findings also characterized how students exert the most and least amount of their cognitive effort in relation to the Problem Domain: Degree of Abstraction and Strategy Classification coding schemes. / Ph. D.

Digitala spel i dagens samhälle blir allt vanligare och har de senaste åren börjat användas inom utbildning och undervisning runt om i världen. Att använda spel och teknologi inom en utbildning har både positiv och negativ påverkan på eleverna så väl som skolan. Teknikens positiva delar leder till en ökad motivation och engagemang bland eleverna men kan samtidigt leda till mer negativa delar, till exempel social isolering, dyra kostnader eller en distraktion som kan leda till att det påverkar andra kurser inom utbildningen negativt. Denna rapport syftar till att vara ett stöd vid val av utbildningsverktyg som ska användas i syfte för Game Design Based Learning (GDBL). Detta stöd består av en utvärderingsmodell som kan användas av exempelvis lärare som vill tillämpa GDBL i sin utbildning. Arbetet har utförts med stöd av forskningsstrategin design och skapande, där utvecklingen och framtagandet av en artefakt har skett. Utvärderingsmodellen har utformats med hjälp av den aktuella forskningsstrategin. Datainsamlingen för arbetet har skett genom sökning efter utbildningsverktyg, bland annat, på sökmotorn Google Search tillsammans med relevanta termer för arbetet, till exempel drag & drop. Vid tillämpning av GDBL samt valet av utbildningsverktyg gäller det att ta hänsyn till både de möjligheter som GDBL ger men även de negativa risker som finns. Utvärderingsmodellen har också testats på fem olika utbildningsverktyg för att validera utvärderingsmodellen. Dessa fem utbildningsverktyg är Scratch, Kodu Game Lab, Kahoot, Quizizz och Twine. Slutligen kom vi fram till att två av utbildningsverktygen passar bäst i ett utbildningssyfte. Dessa var Kahoot och Quizizz som är simpla frågesportsspel, det vill säga att dessa inte kräver utbildning eller programmering för att användas inom en undervisning. Detta baserades på ett påhittat scenario vilket var att hitta ett utbildningsverktyg för ett program som inriktar sig på grafisk design. / Digital games in today's society are becoming more common and have in the past few years been used in education and teaching around the world. Using games and technology in an education has both positive and negative impact on the students as well as the school. The positive aspects of technology lead to increased motivation and commitment among the students, but at the same time can lead to more negative factors, such as social isolation, expensive costs or a distraction that may adversely affect other courses in education. This report aims to be a support in selecting educational tools to be used for Game Design Based Learning (GDBL). This support consists of an evaluation model that can be used, for example, by teachers who wish to apply GDBL in their education. The work has been carried out with the support of the research strategy design and creation, where the development and the production of an artefact has taken place. The evaluation model has been designed using the current research strategy. The data collection for the work has been done by searching for training tools, including the search engine Google Search, along with relevant terms for the work, such as drag & drop. When applying GDBL and the choice of training tools, it takes into account both the opportunities offered by GDBL, but also the negative risks that exist. The evaluation model has also been tested on five different training tools to validate the evaluation model. These five training tools are Scratch, Kodu Game Lab, Kahoot, Quizizz and Twine. Finally, we found that two of the training tools are the most suitable for educational purposes. These were Kahoot and Quizizz, which are simple quiz games, that is, they do not require education or programming to be used in a classroom. This was based on an established scenario, which was to find a training tool for a program that focuses on graphic design.

L’énergie géothermique possède un fort potentiel aux Antilles et le développement de son exploitation gagnerait à être accompagné d’une sensibilisation des populations locales, à laquelle un effort en termes de formation et d’éducation pourrait participer. Cette thèse de didactique des sciences s’inscrit dans le cadre des études portant sur les conceptions scientifiques et sur les contextualisations didactiques. Elle fait partie du projet GEOTREF, dont l’objectif est de développer les connaissances et techniques sur la géothermie aux Antilles. La première partie de la thèse décrit les conceptions d’un échantillon représentatif d’élèves à propos de la géothermie, sur trois territoires (Guadeloupe, Martinique et Dominique). Elle révèle que les conceptions sont très différentes en fonction de l’île sur laquelle elles ont été recueillies, et qu’elles sont principalement liées aux contextes géothermiques. La deuxième partie présente un dispositif de formation, basé sur les effets de contextes. Une expérimentation met en collaboration des étudiants du Québec et de Guadeloupe. Les résultats confirment la possibilité de créer des enseignements basés sur les effets de contextes, et permettent de préciser leurs modalités d’émergences et leurs caractéristiques. L’étude montre que la confrontation des étudiants à plusieurs contextes géothermiques permet l’acquisition de conceptions expertes sur le sujet, et que les effets de contextes peuvent servir d’outil à l’acquisition des connaissances. Nous préconisons de construire les enseignements relatifs à la géothermie à partir des conceptions préalables des apprenants, tout en s’appuyant sur le contexte géothermique local. / Geothermal energy has great potential in the West Indies. The exploitation of such resources requires a deep awareness of the local populations, to which an effort in terms of training and education could participate. This science education thesis takes part in the studies related to scientific conceptions and didactic contextualization. It is also part of the GEOTREF project, which aims to develop knowledge and techniques on geothermal energy in the West Indies. The first part of the thesis describes conceptions of students in three territories (Guadeloupe, Martinique and Dominica). It reveals that the conceptions in these three islands are very different, and that they are mainly related to geothermal contexts. The second part presents a pedagogical experiment based on context effects. This experiment brings together students from Quebec and from Guadeloupe. The results confirm the possibility of a teaching based on the effects of contexts, and also make it possible to specify the emergence modalities and the characteristics of these phenomena. The study shows that the confrontation of students’ conceptions, with different geothermal contexts, help with the acquisition of expert conceptions on the subject. Context effects can be used as a tool for the acquisition of knowledge. Finally, geothermal education can be built by taking into account the learners' prior conceptions, while relying on the local geothermal context.