Dans un contexte de globalisation du droit, l’internationalisation du droit constitutionnel est un véritable carrefour entre le droit interne et le droit international. Il est un processus essentiel caractérisé par une harmonisation juridique, à la fois résultante et vecteur de la communicabilité entre les systèmes juridiques. Il se réalise par de multiples acteurs – étatiques et non étatiques – de différentes manières. D’un processus qui semble désordonné se dégagent deux axes de réalisation par l’universalisation des droits de l’homme et la standardisation institutionnelle. Mais, l’internationalisation du droit constitutionnel n’en est pas pour autant moins complexe. Son analyse ne peut écarter les interférences de processus connexes tels que la constitutionnalisation du droit international et la régionalisation du droit. C’est la confirmation de la position de carrefour de l’internationalisation du droit constitutionnel. Par ailleurs, cette complexité se retrouve dans les impacts du processus sur son objet. Tout d’abord, le droit constitutionnel est bouleversé dans ses caractéristiques, sa définition mêmes. Le renouvellement de sa lecture est indispensable. Puis, l’internationalisation pousse à l’intégration du paradigme du pluralisme dans les systèmes constitutionnels devenus complexes. Leur lecture ne peut plus être la même. L’internationalisation pousse à un renouvellement des grilles de lecture des ensembles normatifs. Enfin, un impact profond se situe dans le lien qui lie le droit constitutionnel à l’État. Ce dernier ne définit plus seul le droit constitutionnel. Pourtant, il reste toujours essentiel et le droit constitutionnel ainsi réenvisagé est renforcé par le processus d’internationalisation. La notion fait une nouvelle fois preuve d’adaptation car c’est bien ce qui caractérise le droit constitutionnel. / In the context of globalization of law, internationalisation of constitutional law is a real crossroads between domestic law and international law. It’s an essential process which is characterized by legal harmonization, as much a consequence as it is a vector of legal system’s communicability. It’s carried out by multiple actors – state and non-state – in different ways. Two main lines are emerging from this initially disorganized process, the universal realization of human rights and institutional standardization. But the internationalization of constitutional law is still complex. The analysis of this phenomenon cannot rule out interference related processes such as the constitutionalization of international law and the regionalization of law. The internationalization of constitutional law is hence a crossroads between constitutional law and international law. Moreover, this complexity is reflected in the impacts that internationalization have on constitutional law. First, constitutional law is overturned in its own definition and characteristics. The reconsideration of its reading is essential. Second, internationalization causes the integration the pluralism paradigm in complex constitutional systems. Their reading cannot be the same. The internationalization pushes to renewal in reading of the girds of normative sets. Finally, a profound impact lies in the bond between the constitutional right and the state. State, alone, is no more able to define constitutional law. However, state is still essential. In this manner, reconsidered constitutional law is reinforced by the process of internationalization. The concept has proved itself to be once again adaptable, and that is what characterizes constitutional law.

Due to globalization and other factors, the business environment of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) is radically changing. In order for these firms to cope with increased competition and business opportunities in globalised markets, they have to strengthen their innovative capabilities and internationalise their business activities (Rammer and Schmiele, 2008, p.3). In this paper, I investigate the determinants that drive highly technological SMES from Umea (Sweden) to other markets abroad and the paths followed by these SMES.The choice of Highly technological SMES (i.e. SMES with innovative solutions) is mainly due to the fact that they internationalise at a fast pace and often bypass the traditional methods of internationalisation proposed by the Uppsala model of internationalisation. The Uppsala model of internationalisation was used as a reference point where similarities and discrepancies between findings was analysed. In addition to this, a general analysis on how managerial internationalisation strategies are drawn was carefully outlined. Core focus is placed on the importance of resource evaluation, proper entry modes, networking and the inclusion of deinternationalisation as a contingency plan in case the market becomes unresponsive due to rise in cost or high competitive pressures.   By carrying out a qualitative research and a cross-sectional analysis of some four firms operating in the highly technological sector of the Swedish economy, I obtained findings that; Swedish SMEs do not seem to be pushed to internationalisation by increased competition (such as threat of market position through new entrants or a fierce price competition), but rather go abroad with innovative activities when they have a niche market position, i.e. a low number of competitors and a patent-based technology advantage (Rammer and Shmiele,2008,p.3). Concerning the paths followed by these SMEs to international markets, I outlined that the starting point of SMEs is to carry out an evaluation of their resources (physical, human and financial).Careful evaluation of these resources will enable managers detect if the company can cope with foreign expansion. With this information, they can seek for resources that are not internally possess by the company through establishing networks with distributors, firms, suppliers and their customers. With this network, the firm can obtain both market specific and general knowledge of the foreign market. With all this information at hand, the entry mode must be considered. It is of great importance because the cost and risk involve in foreign markets are mostly associated with the chosen entry mode. Because international expansion involves taking risk, I advise managers on setting up a threshold where they can withdraw if the value of the firm begins to drop. However, I urge them to be careful not to withdraw either prematurely or too late. Therefore, I conclude that though international expansion can help SMEs overcome resource constraints, they should however be careful on how they internationalised by following the paths I outlined.       Keywords; Internationalisation, Networking, Resourced Based Perspectives, International Entry Mode, SMEs, Deinternationalisation

This thesis examines the internationalisation of small firms in high technology sectors based in England and Scotland. The conceptual stance taken is that internationalisation is part of the growth and development process of small firms and needs to be viewed holistically. Internationalisation processes are examined chronologically by tracking the external links made by the sample firms from their inception until the date of the survey. The theoretical approach is eclectic, drawing on internalisation/transaction cost, network, internationalisation and resource-based approaches to explanation of firm growth and specifically, their international development. The constructs of the research, the external links, are constructed on the dimensions of internal and external links, inward and outward links and are differentiated by strategic value chain activities research and development, production, and marketing/distribution. The findings of the research indicate that most small technolog y based firms do not internationalise in an export-based evolutionary pattern. Rather, intemationalisation processes are diverse and complex, often reflecting areas of specialisation of the firm, or its internal growth processes. The research indicated that internationalisation is accelerating for the small firm sector, at least in high technologies, with first international links occurring immediately or soon after inception. The factors influencing internationalisation tend to be firm specific and associated with the capabilities, competencies and resources of the associated firms. The major contribution of this thesis is in its development of a conceptual approach which allows the heterogeneity of small firms to be taken into account in the research design, focuses on the holistic growth and development of the firm rather than a functional perspective, and makes a significant advance towards the integration of different theoretical approaches to the development of small international firms. There are important implications in the findings, amongst which is evidence that small firms in certain sectors are subject to influences from international, if not global, industries at an early stage. These firms need to be prepared to compete at international level, and become involved in cross border activity at very eariy stages in their development. At policy level, the imperative is to provide appropriate infrastructural support and advice which goes beyond the encouragement of exports and recognises that small firms may be involved in additional or alternative internationalisation processes than to the conventional export route broadly recognised within the policy framework.

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Yes / The international entrepreneurship literature has revealed that entrepreneurs’ psychological characteristics drive a firm’s degree of internationalization. However, drivers that relate to entrepreneurs’ passion are not well developed in the international entrepreneurship literature. To fill this gap, this study uses a sample of 233 small firms to examine how entrepreneurs’ passion is related to small firms’ degree of internationalization and it also investigates whether this relationship is affected by levels of the home country’s institutional voids. The results show that passion is positively related to firms’ degree of internationalization and this relationship is positively moderated by levels of institutional voids. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

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This thesis presents a case study of the understandings of internationalisation of higher education at a UK university. The study elicited views from individuals in diverse management positions at the university, particularly in relation to the university’s internationalisation strategy document. Prior research in the field of internationalisation of higher education has largely focused on international students’ experiences or patterns of their mobility. As far as policy is concerned, there has been an emphasis on the commercial and diplomatic values of the ‘education export industry’. Internationalisation has also been seen in terms of ‘international activities’, the ‘international market’ and the expanding mass access to higher education. The research reported herein is particularly important in the sense that it provides insight into how the term internationalisation is understood from diverse positions within the university management and how these interpretations influence approaches to the implementation of the university’s internationalisation strategy. As a qualitative study, using in-depth interviews as the key data collection approach, the research is unusual in its challenging of interpretations of internationalisation that have previously been largely researched through surveys and questionnaires. The research and its findings take the concept of internationalisation away from the practices of the institution and into the accounts of the individuals who manage it. Findings of the research include the existence of clear differences in views about the meaning and means of implementation of internationalisation, which is widely seen as a goal or end-state rather than as a process. This poses a challenge for the implementation of the centrally-promoted international strategy in the institution concerned.

Les investissements directs étrangers liés à la recherche-développement dans les pays en voie de développement ne cessent de croître depuis le milieu des années 1990 et cette croissance est très concentrée géographiquement, les gros pays émergents en étant les principales destinations. Cette thèse s’interroge ainsi sur les déterminants de la localisation de la R&D des firmes multinationales dans ce type de pays, en plaçant au centre de l’analyse les facteurs d’innovation. La littérature sur l’internationalisation de la R&D suggère que les activités d’innovation, étant hautement intensives en connaissances, sont localisées dans les pays développés et que la R&D déployée dans les pays en développement est limitée uniquement à l’adaptation des produits/processus aux conditions locales. Nous bâtissons un cadre d’analyse et élaborons un modèle qui permet de dégager les déterminants de la R&D des firmes multinationales dans les pays en développement, en distinguant entre les facteurs d’offre ou technologiques, et ceux de demande. Les premiers déterminent la R&D d’innovation, alors que les seconds, la R&D d’adaptation. Le rôle crucial des capacités technologiques et des ventes locales dans le choix du pays-hôte montre que l’investissement direct étranger lié à la R&D dans les pays en développement est déterminé surtout par les opportunités de développement technologique et par les besoins d’adaptation aux conditions du marché local, l’innovation y occupant peu de place. En plus, lorsque le choix se pose entre les pays en développement et ceux développés, l’appartenance au premier groupe exerce un effet dissuasif sur l’investissement direct étranger lié à la R&D. / Research and development-related foreign direct investment in developing countries continues to grow since the mid-1990s, and this growth is highly concentrated geographically, large emerging countries being the main destinations.This thesis thus examines the determinants of multinational firms’ R&D location in such countries by placing innovation factors in the forefront of the analysis. The literature on the internationalization of R&D suggests that innovation activities, being highly knowledge-intensive, are located in developed countries, while R&D deployed in developing countries is confined to adapting products and processes to local conditions. We build an analytical framework and develop a model that allows to identify the determinants of multinational firms’ R&D location in developing countries, while distinguishing between supply and demand factors. The former explain innovative R&D, and the latter, adaptive R&D. The crucial role of host-country’s technological capabilities and foreign affiliates’ local sales in the location decision shows that R&D-related foreign direct investment in developing countries is mainly determined by the opportunities for technological development and by the need of adaptation to local market conditions, innovation-related motivations having little importance. Furthermore, when the location choice is made between developing and developed economies, belonging to the former type of countries has a deterrent effect on foreign direct investment in R&D.

<p>This dissertation sets out to explore the phenomenon of Born Globals, a small, international entrepreneurial firm. The study aims at exploring how the entrepreneur perceives the factors that influence the creation of a Born Global. This topic has been chosen since little research has been carried out in order to investigate what the entrepreneurs find important in the creation of a Born Global. This fact has been the basis in developing our study’s aim to investigate the factors’ relative importance. </p><p>The first step in the investigation is the literature review which is carried out in order to gain significant knowledge about the phenomenon before collecting empirical data of our own, the deductive approach. The literature review revolves around the conceptual framework created by Andersson & Wictor (2003), which has been used to summarise other findings by other authors into the four subcategories that our found to facilitate the creation of a Born Global. In addition to these factors we have found that nation specific characteristics and company specific advantages, as well as entry modes are feasible facilitators to discuss further.</p><p>When considering methodology a qualitative design has been found the most suitable. The approach used is influenced by Phenomenography which aims to describe people’s perceptions and experiences of different phenomena. In order to investigate this phenomenon we have used open interviews with two different entrepreneurs that were found through careful sampling. The companies chosen are located on two different continents and in two different businesses.</p><p>The interviews have been transcribed and categorised and the empirical data have been divided into the same categories used in the literature review. This has been done in order to make it easier to read but also easier to analyse. After the summary of the empirical data we have conducted a cross analysis. In analysing the data we have looked for similarities and differences in order to draw conclusions regarding the issues set out to investigate. </p><p>The empirical results and the analysis revolve around the six areas outlined in the theory, i.e. Globalisation, Entrepreneur, Networks, Industry, Entry Modes, and A fit between nation specific characteristics and company specific advantages. The two entrepreneurs consider the same factors to have had the biggest influence for the biggest part. However they disagree regarding the importance of Networks and Market Entry. These factors have both had an impact on the companies but their relative importance is disputed. </p><p>We would like to stress that the investigated attitudes are subjective. It is the interviewees’ attitudes and opinions the study has been aiming at investigating and therefore it is important to identify the individual as a factor when discussing the investigation’s credibility. It is rather unlikely that we would have reached the same conclusions with different interviewees but since it is attitudes that have been investigated it is only natural and does therefore not clash with the purpose of the study.</p>