Les plantes invasives constituent un phénomène très répandu sur la planète qui entraîne des problèmes environnementaux majeurs aboutissant à des perturbations significatives dans les processus régissant la conservation de la diversité végétale et microbienne des sols. Acacia mearnsii (De Wild) est l'une des espèces d'Acacia ayant un potentiel invasif important. Cette légumineuse d'origine australienne a été introduite dans les subéraies du Parc National d'El-Kala (PNEK), au Nord-Est de l'Algérie, où elle induit des dégradations drastiques sur l'écosystème forestier de chêne-liège Quercus suber (L.) et la diversité végétale et microbienne de cette formation forestière. L'objectif de cette étude a été d'évaluer les transformations induites par A. mearnsii sur les caractéristiques et microbienne du sol (particulièrement les communautés de symbiotes microbiens) et d'en déterminer les conséquences sur le développement de chêne-liège. Une série d'expérimentations a été réalisée sur les sols de trois sites dans le PNEK : forêt naturelle de Q. suber (site non envahi), peuplement mixte Q. suber et A. mearnsii (site envahi récemment par A. mearnsii) et peuplement d'A. mearnsii (site anciennement envahi par A. mearnsii). Les analyses de sol, de la diversité fonctionnelle et structurelle des microorganismes telluriques ont révélé l'existence de modifications liées à la présence de l'espèce envahissante. D'autre part, il a été déterminé que A. mearnsii avait un effet inhibiteur sur le développement du chêne-liège et sur son cortège ectomycorhizien associé. De plus, cette essence semble avoir la capacité de s'adapter facilement au milieu d'introduction, du fait de sa forte mycotrophie vis à vis des champignons mycorhiziens arbusculaires, et de sa facilité de nodulation spontanée avec des bactéries symbiotiques principalement du genre Bradyrhizobium. La présence de symbiotes compatibles avec A. mearnsii dans les habitats envahis représente probablement un des facteurs susceptibles de faciliter le processus d'envahissement de l'espèce. Nos résultats suggèrent que la régression du développement du chêne-liège peut être liée aux modifications induites par A. mearnsii sur le fonctionnement du sol et la structure des microorganismes telluriques. Cet effet est probablement lié à d'autres éléments biotiques et abiotiques du milieu envahi influencé par cet arbre. Il sera donc important d'affiner cette étude, et d'analyser plus précisément les paramètres pouvant être à l'origine du succès de l'invasion par A. mearnsii afin de définir un cadre de lutte contre cette espèce invasive et ainsi sauvegarder la subéraie . / Invasive plants are a global phenomenon causing major environmental problems leading to significant disruptions in the processes governing the conservation of plant diversity and soil microbial communities. Acacia mearnsii (De Wild) is one of the Acacia species with a significant invasive potential. This Australian native legume was introduced in the cork forests of the National Park of El Kala (PNEK), North-eastern Algeria, and induced drastic degradation of the cork oak (Quercus suber (L.)) forest ecosystem, on understorey plant species and soil microbial diversity. The objective of this study was to evaluate changes resulting from the A. mearnsii invasion on chemical characteristics and soil microbiota (especially symbiotic microbial communities) and to determine their impact on cork oak development. Experiments were conducted on soils collected from three sites in the PNEK: Q. suber natural stand (non-invaded site), mixed Q. suber and A. mearnsii stand (recently invaded site) and A. mearnsii stand (fully invaded site). Both chemical and microbiological soil characteristics were affected by the presence of the invasive species. On the other hand, it was determined that A. mearnsii had an inhibitory effect on the development of the cork oak tree and its associated ectomycorrhizal community. In addition, this tree species seems to easily interact with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the introduction area, being abundantly infected. It is also spontaneously nodulated by local symbiotic bacteria, mainly of the genus Bradyrhizobium. The presence of symbionts, compatible with A. mearnsii in invaded habitats are probably one of the factors that facilitate the process of invasion. Our results suggest that the development of the cork oak can be linked to changes induced by A. mearnsii with soil functioning and with the composition of soil microorganism communities. This effect is probably related to other biotic and abiotic components of the environment influenced by this invasive tree species. It seems thus important to analyze more precisely the parameters that cause the success of the invasion by A. mearnsii in order to better control this invasive species and save the cork oak forest in Algeria.

The molluscs are very suitable model of invertebrate group for ecological and palaeoecological studies for their specific traits. In the first part of the thesis, we showed based on available fossil mollusc successions that development of the floodplain mollusc fauna took place quite different way in various river floodplains, depending on their specifics and geographical location, because especially the ones situated in the chernozem area of the Czech Republic had very different history. Detailed processing of five fossil mollusc successions in the lower Ohře River floodplain confirmed the impoverishment of recent forest malacofauna does not relate to natural processes only (chapters 3 and 10), but it arises from historical development of this area which was under permanent stress of the human settlement and agricultural utilization (chapter 1) since the coming of the Neolithic people. We made similar conclusions in case of another 11 fossil mollusc successions in the neighbouring České Středohoří Mts. (chapter 2). In the second part of the thesis (chapter 3), we investigated the ecological patterns responsible for species richness and composition of the floodplain mollusc fauna are especially the elevation and humidity gradient, and then vegetation type and its biomass, light conditions of the...

Invasive alien species is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity worldwide. American Skunk-cabbage (Lysichiton americanus) is an invasive alien plant originating from North America. It has become naturalised in several European countries, including Sweden. American Skunk-cabbage is a threat to other plants as it forms dense stands and outcompetes native vegetation by shadowing. It is believed that the biggest population of Skunk-cabbage in Sweden is along Fylleån in Halland. The aim with this report is to map the distribution of Skunk-cabbage in a section of the stream and to examine different methods for control and eradication of the weed. A survey was performed along a section of the stream between the dates 30th April – 8th May 2019. The survey was executed from Ryaberg to Torsaberga (13 km). The search area was comparted into 6 locations. The highest point where Skunk-cabbage was found upstream in Fylleån was at location 6. A total of 4157 individual plants were found along a stretch of 6km and 34 km of the stream is believed to be affected by the invasion. A majority of the plants grows in marshland. Both mechanical and chemical control are used when eradicating Skunk-cabbage. The most common method is digging by hand. This is also the method that I recommend in the event of an eradication campaign in Fylleån. No eradication efforts will be performed in Fylleån during 2019 due to restricted economical resources. Different projects are under development for the purpose of future eradication of Skunk-cabbage in Halland. / Invasiva främmande arter är ett av de största hoten mot biodiversiteten globalt. Gul skunkkalla (Lysichiton americanus) är en invasiv främmande växt från Nordamerika. Arten är naturaliserad och etablerad i flera europeiska länder, däribland Sverige. Skunkkalla har en förmåga att konkurrera ut andra arter genom skuggning. Den bildar täta och stora bestånd och tränger på så vis undan annan växtlighet. Sveriges största bestånd av skunkkalla förmodas finnas längs med Fylleån i Hallands län. I bevarandeplanen för Natura 2000-området Fylleån finns en punkt om att man behöver ta ställning till de stora bestånden av skunkkalla i ån. Den här rapporten behandlar både utbredning och kartläggning av skunkkalla i en utvald del av Fylleån, samt bekämpningsmetoder för arten. Kartläggning av utbredningen har skett genom en inventering längs med ån. Inventeringen utfördes mellan Ryaberg och Torsaberga (13km) mellan datumen 30/4 – 8/5 2019. 4157 plantor av skunkkalla hittades längs en sträcka av 6km mellan Ryaberg och Fröbökekvarn. Fyndplatserna delades in i 6 lokaler. Lokal 6 är den högsta fyndplatsen av skunkkalla i Fylleåns lopp. 3,4 mil av ån bedöms vara påverkad av invasionen. Den vanligaste växtplatsen längs med ån bedöms vara sumpmark. I bekämpning av skunkkalla använder sig av både mekanisk och kemisk bekämpning. Den vanligaste använda bekämpningsmetoden visade sig vara bortgrävning för hand. Det är också den metoden jag förespråkar vid en eventuell utrotning i Fylleån. På grund av brist på ekonomiska resurser kommer inte någon utrotning att ske i Fylleån 2019. Olika projekt är nu under konstruktion för framtida bekämpning i länet.

Thesis (MTech (Conservation and Marine Sciences))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016. / Invasive alien plant species pose a major threat to global biodiversity by displacing native vegetation and transforming habitats. In South Africa, invasive alien plants have become a major component of most habitats. River systems are particularly affected owing to their dynamic nature and to anthropogenic activities. This has resulted in fynbos riparian scrub vegetation being replaced mainly by Acacia and Eucalyptus species, with serious ecological and economic impacts. The presence of alien trees along river banks leads to a reduction in native plant species richness and their high water consumption adds on to the existing water challenges in an already dry country. However, with regards to native fauna, it largely remains unknown both at small or large spatial scale, whether alien trees provide additional habitat which increases biodiversity, or if their presence leads to a reduction of native biodiversity. Impacts on water supply have led to large-scale clearing of invasive alien trees from riparian zones by the government through the Working for Water (WfW) programme. Monitoring and evaluation studies carried out after clearing are not well-rounded and mostly focus on vegetation response to clearing. Although some of these studies have reported successful restoration through passive methods, ecosystem recovery remains partial. There is evidently a lack of information regarding the response of animal communities to invasive alien plant clearing. Therefore, the main objective of this thesis was to investigate bird assemblage response to alien tree invasion and clearing. As a study system, I used the riparian area of the Berg River within the fynbos biome of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. The area historically consisted of renosterveld vegetation characterised by a matrix of shrubs and a high diversity of geophytes but relatively poor avifaunal diversity. This area is heavily affected by invasive alien trees and shrubs including Eucalyptus camaldulensis. I employed bird assemblages as an indicator, and used fixed-point bird counts to compare bird species richness and bird abundance between invaded and near-pristine habitats. Invasion by E. camaldulensis significantly reduced bird species richness and abundance. In particular, nectarivores and frugivores, which play important mutualistic roles in the fynbos, were reduced and unexpectedly; there were fewer raptors in invaded areas. I proceeded to carry out a space for time substitution, comparing plant and bird assemblages in invaded sites, near-pristine sites and in sites cleared in 2005, 2007, 2008 and 2014. A general increase in bird species richness and bird abundance with time since clearing exists with bird assemblages in cleared sites being similar to those in near-pristine sites. However, bird assemblages in cleared sites have not yet fully recovered a decade after clearing and four native plant species are still absent. In the third part of my thesis I assessed the impacts of invasive alien plants on bird assemblages at a larger spatial scale. The different responses shown by bird assemblages to invasive alien plant cover depended on the intensity of invasion, spatial scale and other land uses. From a bird’s eye view, this study supports the current clearing by WfW given the significant negative effects of invasive alien plants on bird diversity both at plot and large spatial scales. However, passive restoration is unsuccessful in restoring the full complement of plants and birds, therefore, active restoration should be considered. To limit the cost, I suggest a focused restoration approach of selected keystone tree species which can assist to establish a functional native ecosystem.

Aristida junciformis subsp. junciformis Trin. et Rupr. is an indigenous, densely tufted, evergreen perennial grass associated with the degeneration of grasslands over large areas of South Africa. More than two hundred thousand square kilometres of veld, c. 17% of the total land area of South Africa, contains A. junciformis. The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of the mechanisms by which this species invades and dominates grassland, specifically in this study, Southern Tall Grassveld. Aristida junciformis also has a low nutritional value resulting in a very low grazing value. The unpalatability of the plant is due to the high tensile strength of the leaves, whose hard, fibrous laminas are very difficult for a grazing animal to crop once their length attains 30 cm or more. This species lack of response to conventional grazing practices has often resulted in a grassland in which the carrying capacity has diminished to such an extent as to be virtually useless for grazing in a relatively short time. The extent of encroachment of veld by A. junciformis appears dependant on the frequency of disturbance and rest afforded to the veld. Annual burning and mowing maintained the species composition of A. junciformis at levels <10% whilst protection from fire, burning or grazing allows this species to dominate the herbaceous layer at levels approaching 90%. Aristida junciformis does not become moribund and is unlikely to die if left undefoliated. As the abundance of A. junciformis increases, veld deterioration gradually accelerates through increased selective grazing on remaining palatable species. Competition from adult A. junciformis plants increases the mortality of seedlings and constrains growth of surviving seedlings. Tiller production of Aristida junciformis seedlings declined from an average of 5.2 tillers per seedling in a no competition situation to 2.2 tillers per seedling when subjected to full competition. Tiller production of T. triandra seedlings decreased from 9.6 tillers per seedling free from competition to 3.3 tillers per seedling subject to full competition for resources. Once these seedlings have become adult plants they are avoided by grazing animals and grazing pressure on the remaining palatable species consequently increases. This allows the A. junciformis plants to increase their size and density in the sward. Once this density is sufficiently high, grass seedlings of either A. junciformis or more desirable grass species such as T. triandra are unable to establish, eventually resulting in a monospecific stand of A. junciformis if left undisturbed. Large amounts of caryopses are produced by A. junciformis - up to a 19 000 caryopses from a large mature plant (c. 38 000 caryopses/m²). Of these c. 40% is likely to be infertile but the remaining c. 60% viable caryopses are dispersed in a typically leptokurtic distribution, the number of caryopses dispersed rapidly declining within a 10 metre radius. A large proportion of the caryopses was trapped in surrounding foliage but in open swards caryopses had greater opportunity to be blown further distances than in a closed sward. The density of A. junciformis caryopses on the soil surface was positively correlated with the density of flowering adult plants in the area and varied from 400 caryopses/m² (density of parent plants c. 0.6 plants/m²) in less effected areas to 11000 caryopses/m² (density of adult plants c. 6 plants/m²) in severely encroached areas. The primary function of the three awns appears to be orientating the caryopsis correctly for in its descent from the parent plant to expedite germination. Caryopses orientated vertically with the awns uppermost exhibited the highest and most rapid germination (67%) compared to caryopses lying horizontally (35%) whilst only 1% of inverted caryopses germinated. Caryopses trapped in litter and effectively held off the soil surface failed to germinate. Removal of the glumes from A junciformis seed greatly enhanced the rate and overall germination of the seed except for inverted seed of which <1% germinated. The highest numbers of A. junciformis seedlings (32 seedlings/m²) were found in those areas with the highest density of caryopses on the soil surface. Despite the large amounts of caryopses produced, dispersed and landing in apparently suitable micro-sites for germination, comparatively few A. junciformis seedlings (n=992) were found and overall germination ranged between 1 % and 4% of the initial caryopses density on the soil surface. Seedling survival through winter was low with only 13% surviving to the following spring. The basal areas of A. junciformis increased overall by 66% whilst that of other grass species increased overall by only 3% in the time monitored. These results suggest that the primary method of encroachment of A. junciformis in the grass sward appears to be through vegetative expansion and not seedling recruitment. Frequent defoliation of the sward and avoidance of overgrazing to enhance the competitive abilities of palatable species and provide as high a fuel load as possible appear to be the most economically and logistically feasible ways to remove or at least inhibit A. junciformis veld encroachment at present. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

For decades, South Africa has been heavily infested by invasive alien plants. As a result there is concern over the increasing rate at which the alien plants are replacing indigenous vegetation. Another concern regarding the invasive alien plants is the indirect stress they pose on the environment due to their excessive water consumption. As a result of this, government of South Africa, through the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Acts (43 of 1983) and other environmental legislation, mandates and encourages the removal of invasive alien plants from the landscapes of South Africa. The need for removal of these invasive alien plants led to the formation of the Working for Water Programme (WfW), which is based on a novel approach to environmental management. It contends that the invasion of ecosystems by invasive alien plants could have detrimental effects on water yields from catchment areas, and that employing people to deal with the problem could both protect this vital resource and provide employment and upliftment in poor rural communities. It has been suggested that the supply of information to the public about invasive alien plants is generally poor, to the extent that many people are the causal agents of these plants entering their communities (McNeely 1999). If this lack of awareness is the case, then understanding the drivers of local knowledge which will feed into public awareness is essential to change public perceptions and values surrounding invasive alien plants. It is important to understand local knowledge in order to determine gaps in information transfer and enable them to make decisions that are grounded in local cultural interpretations of place and their environment (Ebohon et al 2000). It is also important to ii understand what the local communities know and what they need to know about these invasive alien plants. This study is premised on developing an understanding of local knowledge and perceptions about invasive alien plants. The assumption is that those involved in the programme would display positive values towards the environment. It is also assumed that those involved in the programme have developed their local/traditional knowledge of invasive alien plants through the educational component of WfW programme. A case study approach of Upper Illovu Working for Water project was adopted. The research was carried out by means of questionnaire interviews. The respondents were drawn from Indaleni community in Richmond, KwaZulu-Natal. Thirty respondents were interviewed and this was inclusive of the field workers, contractors, project manager and people who were not involved in the project but from the same community. Those not involved in the project were used as a control group. Five objectives were utilized to investigate the aim of this study. They were to: a) Determine the respondents’ relationship to, and perceptions of the Upper Illovu WfW project b) Establish the respondents’ understanding and perceptions about the levels of invasive alien plants in the area c) Determine the respondents’ knowledge and perceptions pertaining to prevention of the spread of invasive alien plants iii d) Establish the respondents’ competencies in controlling and managing invasive alien plants and e) Establish the respondents’ perceptions about the project’s ability to deliver on its objectives. The results of this study indicate that most of the respondents were aware of the Upper IIlovu WfW project and its ecological and social upliftment objectives. The pattern of the responses was such that those that did not participate in the project (control group) were for the most part not sure about their responses. Although those who participated in the project displayed better knowledge of issues concerning invasive alien plants, there were many occasions when they failed to provide some responses without being prompted – given clues or examples. To conclude, there was, therefore, a significant knowledge gap about invasive alien plants and information pertaining to them between the two groups. The implications are that those involved with the project must have received some form of information through public awareness about invasive alien plants. That is their traditional knowledge about these invasive plants has been developed by the education from the programme, WfW. But most importantly, the programme remains a key for economic reasons from the perspective of the participants. The need for constant improvement and development of local knowledge regarding these invasive alien plants is important in dealing with their spread and management of their effects on the environment. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The problems posed by alien invasive plants to our environment and the need for clearing and control has been highlighted by the Working for Water (WFW) programme. Alien plant control requires careful planning, including budgeting. To date, costing and budgeting in alien plant control has largely been a combination of experience on the part of weed 'experts', coupled with much guess work. Weed controllers have through experience calculated the amount of time (or the work rate), recorded as labour days, required for different control actions of different weed habits. These work rates are for weed clearance under ideal conditions and do not take into account the effect of factors such as gradient, access and distance to the weed infestation. Factors affecting the work rate has been researched and modelled by researchers in both alien plant control and the timber industry. While the existing work rate model is useful in its present theoretical state, the model may be improved upon to make it more practical and applicable to the varying conditions of different areas. This research built on existing theoretical research on alien control work rates, and concentrated on two main areas: the adaption and incorporation of the existing research on work rates into a Geographical Information System (GIS), and the creation and demonstration of a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) for the management of alien plant control. The eMpofana river in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands was selected as the study area, as there was an existing alien plant control programme. Initially all factors, such as slope, access to weed infestations, terrain and penetrability of infestations, affecting the work rate in the research area were identified. An existing work rate model was then modified to account for the conditions of the research area. Regression analysis was used to derive the relationship between the various factors affecting work rate, creating a work rate model applicable to the study area. Using the results of the regression analysis together with work rate figures adapted from an existing alien plant control programme, a SDSS for alien plant control along the eMpofana River was created. The use of the work rate model and the SDSS in the development of weed control programmes was demonstrated by examining four different management approaches, each having a different management objective . The SDSS provides a spatial component to weed control planning and costing that has thus far not existed. What this research has achieved is the advancement of an alien control work rate model from a theoretical to a more realistic costing process. While some factors affecting work rate may not have been accounted for, the model does address the present inaccuracies in labour costing, and ultimately alien plant control costing. The research has highlighted the disadvantages of GIS in terms of affordability and expertise. The model has wider uses than the eMpofana River, and is the ground work for the further development of a user friendly model applicable throughout South Africa. More effective project budgeting will decrease the likelihood of project failure and this will directly benefit long-term weed control efforts. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

South Africa has a long history of problems with invasive alien species. In an assessment of alien invading plants and water resources in South Africa Versveld et al. (1998) estimated that Invasive Alien Plants (IAPs) in South Africa covered an area equivalent to the size of KwaZulu-Natal. However this area of invasion was primarily concentrated along the river courses of South Africa as alien invasions are arguably a riparian problem (Versveld et al., 1998). In a 1998 assessment of the distribution of IAPs in South Africa Versveld et al. (1998) found a total invasion extent of 8% for South Africa (including Lesotho), while KwaZulu-Natal had a higher total extent of invasion at 9.75%. However the authors noted the limitations of the IAP mapping assessment and stated that from personal observations and observers’ comments the area invaded by IAPs may be as much as 2-3 times greater than the 9.75% value obtained for KwaZulu-Natal. South Africa’s most widespread invasive alien tree (Dye and Jarmain, 2004), Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), is ubiquitous throughout KwaZulu-Natal, and invades most severely where water is plentiful, such as along watercourses and road verges. However following dispersal along rivers, A. mearnsii spreads into adjacent terrestrial habitats (Richardson and Kluge, 2008) including indigenous grassland and forest. A. mearnsii was introduced to South Africa in the middle 19th century to provide tanbark, woodchips, construction poles and firewood, and its introduction spread rapidly across KwaZulu-Natal through farmers and foresters (Henderson, 2001; WESSA, 2008). River and riparian zone rehabilitation is becoming accepted as having an essential role to play in the long term solution of water resource quality and supply problems and environmental health as a whole. As a result the impact of IAP invasions on water resources, ecological habitats and the delivery of ecosystem goods and services has undergone much scientific investigation (van Wilgen et al., 2008). Numerous studies have shown that, under most circumstances, removal of IAPs results in a general increase in streamflow and returns a stream to a more natural seasonal flow regime. However, scientific studies on the influences of woody IAPs on the hydrogeomorphology of riparian areas, and the resultant effects on stream hydrology and ecology, have undergone little scientific investigation in the South African context. Hydrogeomorphology studies the linkages of surface and subsurface water, and hydrological processes with landforms and geomorphic processes in temporal and spatial dimensions. As a result the discipline is well applied to the study of the interaction of, and interdisciplinary impacts of IAPs on riparian areas. Macdonald (2004:22) stated that there is a need to “investigate the interaction of IAPs with other aspects of water quality, for example soil erosion rates, including river channel and bank erosion.” In the early 1990s, after a study assessing the potential impact of IAPs on the geomorphology of river channels in South Africa, Rowntree (1991) stressed that further research on the influence of IAPs on stream geomorphology is required to guide truly effective riparian zone management. Since this study, little scientific work has been undertaken on this topic in the South African context. The literature review portion of this dissertation reviews the findings of various researchers as to how IAPs physically influence riparian habitats, specifically with reference to the role of IAPs in degrading riparian and streambank landscapes to an extent that streambank stability and stream channel form is adversely affected. This topic is introduced by illustrating the many functions that riparian zones can perform and some of the possible consequences of a loss of riparian habitat integrity. Worldwide awareness of the functions and values of riparian systems has led many countries to perform inventories of threatened and valuable riparian areas. A database of stream habitat integrity is useful for environmental impact assessments, development planning and resource inventories. Thus a multitude of stream survey and aquatic health sampling techniques and methodologies have been developed, some of which could be applied to assessing the influence of IAPs on riparian zones. 1.1 Research Aims and Objectives This dissertation forms a research study based on field research centred around field methods and tools developed after a review of relevant literature. The key aims of this research study are to; · refine an international river habitat survey method for application within South Africa, and · develop a test case to implement the developed method in analysing the impacts of IAPs on stream hydrogeomorphology in small headwater streams of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. These aims are achieved through the following objectives; · investigate the current body of knowledge covering the impact of woody IAP invasions on streambank stability and channel form, · review available stream survey methods and develop a stream survey methodology which can be applied to investigate the relationships between woody IAP invasions and streambank stability and form within headwater streams of KwaZulu-Natal, · investigate the relationships illustrated by the data after applying the developed stream survey tools and fieldwork methodology, and · discuss any shortfalls of the developed tools and methods, and suggest future needs. The hypothesis of the study contends that, within the focus of this study, invasion of headwater streams by woody IAPs can result in; · increased channel incision and bank steepening, and · an increase in streambank instability. 1.2 Document Structure Chapters 2 to 4 form a review of current literature to establish a base of understanding of the implications, processes and components involved in the invasion of riparian zones by Invasive Alien Plants. In Chapter 5 the approaches to stream surveying are assessed and selected methods of stream survey seen as applicable to this study are reviewed. Based on these findings, a method of stream survey for application in this study is developed and described in Chapter 6 following a description of the fieldwork sites and methodology. Chapter 7 provides an extensive analysis and exploration of the results of the various components of the fieldwork, which are then discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 outlines final conclusions, analysis of the applicability of the findings, and suggestions with regards to future research needs. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The objective of this study was to describe the impacts of the density of Chromolaena odorata (chromolaena) on species composition in coastal grasslands and to investigate serial changes in the vegetation following the implementation of a burning programme. The thesis deals with key ecological concepts and issues, so a comprehensive literature review is included. Chromolaena invades coastal grasslands that are not burnt regularly (i.e. biennially). Grasslands that were not burnt for 30 years were seral to secondary forest. The successional pathway from open grassland to closed canopy forest varied according to soil type. Coastal grasslands on Glenrosa soils were characterised by savanna at an intermediate stage between the grassland and forest states. Shading ended the persistence of savanna species (e.g. Combretum molle, Dichrostachys cinerea and Heteropyxis natalensis) in forest, whereas forest precursors (e.g. Canthium inerme, Maytenus undata and Protorhus longifolia) only established where fire was absent. Chromolaena infestations were characterised by multi-stemmed adult plants of variable height (i.e. 1-3 m), depending on soil type. Regic sands did not support stratified woody vegetation and chromolaena infestations were self-supporting, reaching a maximum height of 1.5 m. Glenrosa soils supported tree communities and chromolaena reached more than 3 m in places. The density of chromolaena affected species composition in grasslands with moderate to dense stands (> 5 adult plants m ¯² or >50000 shrubs ha ¯¹). Chromolaena stands became monospecific when the number of adult plants exceeded 7 m ¯². Succession to forest also ceased once chromolaena became thicket-forming. Fire-induced mortality of the chromolaena depended on grass fuel loads. Grass cover of 30% (c. 1 000 kg ha ¯¹) was required to achieve 80% mortality of the parent infestation after the initial burn. Dense infestations could only be killed by running head-fires from adjacent grasslands into thickets. Under conditions where head-fires could not be used, infestations were slashed and burnt at the height of the dry season (July to August) to achieve an 80% kill rate. Seedlings were killed (99%) by annual burning in sparse (≤ 10000 shrubs ha ¯¹) to moderate < 50 000 shrubs ha ¯¹) infestations. The suppression of chromolaena and other alien species, establishing on bare ground after clearing dense infestations, required chemical control until grass cover was sufficient (i.e. 1 000 kg ha ¯¹) to effect uniform burning. Certain secondary alien invaders (e.g. Lantana camara, Psidium guajava and Solanum mauritianum) persisted by coppicing profusely after fire and herbicides need to be integrated into burning programmes when these species occur. Grasslands on regic sands (e.g. Ischaemum fasciculatum, Panicum dregeanum and Themeda triandra) were more resilient to the modifying effects of woody vegetation, than grasslands on Glenrosa soils. Grasslands on Glenrosa soils did not revert to an open state but persisted as ruderal savanna grassland (e.g. Eragrostis curvula, Hyparrhenia tamba and Cymbopogon validus) once fire-resistant tree species (e.g. Combretum molle and Heteropyxis natalensis) had established. Depending the objectives for land management and the vegetation's condition, coastal grasslands can be rehabilitated and managed in multiple states, i.e. grassland, savanna or forest communities. A state-and-transition model based on the empirical data recorded in the study is presented and shows chromolaena altering vegetation states from open grassland to chromolaena dominated thicket. The model illustrates chromolaena thickets as the dominant phase of a moist coastal forest/savanna succession, irrespective of soil type, in absence of appropriate land management practices (e.g. control burning and integrated control of alien vegetation). This model should aid in planning strategies for the control of chromolaena in subtropical grasslands in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

A new sampling method that decouples spatial and environmental correlations was developed and applied to a temperate forest understory. Data were used to contrast niche theory with neutral theory, and only showed support for niche theory. A spatial and environmental partitioning analysis indicated that the effects of dispersal are primarily important within the spatial extent of environments suitable for a given species. The same sampling data were used to test correlates of non-native species invasion at a species level and as a group. The distributions of non-native plant species are also better explained by the niche model; however, non-native species do not appear to negatively impact native species, nor to be negatively impacted by native species. Together, these results suggest that the forest understory is strongly niche-structured, but likely not saturated. Diversity in this forest appears to be primarily determined by regional processes, and only secondarily by local species interactions.