Results from traditional assessment measures used with Spanish-English bilingual children may not be representative of this population’s morphosyntactic abilities due to their dynamic proficiencies. Short-term learning tasks such as structural priming may provide more comprehensive information on bilingual children’s morphosyntactic abilities. The purpose of this thesis was to analyze items from the experimental version of the Bilingual English Spanish Assessment-Middle Extension (BESA-ME) in order to select appropriate item types to be used on a structural priming task. The Experimental BESA-ME was administered to 137 children with typical development and 37 children with language impairment between the ages of 7;0 to 9;11. Results revealed that appropriate items for a structural priming task were third-person singular, past tense, and possessives in English, and conditionals, subjunctives, and direct object clitics in Spanish. Depending on the purpose of the structural priming tasks, additional items also showed potential for use. / text

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Mathematics is an increasingly important aspect of education because of its central role in technology. Learning mathematics at the elementary and middle school levels forms the basis for achievement in high school and college mathematics, and for the broad range of mathematical skills used in the workplace. Especially, the middle school years (e.g., Grade 6-Grade8) are crucial to success in mathematics because students must acquire the skills needed in higher levels of mathematics and complex reasoning ability based on the developmental perspectives on cognition (e.g., Piaget, Vygotsky). The purpose of the current study was to measure and interpret the mathematical achievement growth during the middle school years using some very recent advances (confirmatory multidimensional and longitudinal models) in item response theory. It was found that the relative strength of the content areas (mathematical standards and benchmarks) shifted somewhat across grades in defining mathematical achievement. The largest growth occurred from Grade 6 to Grade 7. The specific pattern of growth varied substantially by the socio-economic status of the student but few differences emerged by gender. The implications of the results for education and for developmental theories of cognitive complexity are discussed.

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The purpose of this study was two-fold: examine junior high school pre-service science teachers' chemical reasoning; and establish the extent to which the pre-service science teachers' chemical abilities explain their chemical reasoning. A sample comprised 165 junior high school pre-service science teachers at Mufulira College of Education in Zambia. There were 82 males and 83 females. Data were collected using a Chemical Concept Reasoning Test (CCRT). Pre-service science teachers' chemical reasoning was established through qualitative analysis of their responses to test items. The Rasch Model was used to determine the pre-service teachers' chemical abilities and item difficulty. Results show that most pre-service science teachers had incorrect chemical reasoning on chemical concepts assessed in this study. There was no significant difference in chemical understanding between the Full-Time and Distance Education pre-service science teachers, and between second and third year pre-service science teachers. However, there was a significant difference in chemical understanding between male and female pre-service science teachers. Male pre-service science teachers showed better chemical understanding than female pre-service science teachers. The Rasch model revealed that the pre-service science teachers had low chemical abilities, and the CCRT was very difficult for this group of pre-service science teachers. As such, their incorrect chemical reasoning was attributed to their low chemical abilities. These results have implications on science teacher education, chemistry teaching and learning, and chemical education research.

This study used multilevel measurement modeling to examine the differential difficulties of math and reading items for Grade 6 students participating in Ontario’s provincial assessment in 2005-2006, in relation to whether they received a setting accommodation, had a learning disability (LD), and spoke a language in addition to English. Both differences in difficulty between groups of students for all items (impact) and for individual items (differential item functioning) were examined. Students’ language backgrounds (whether they spoke a language in addition to English) were not significantly related to item difficulty. Compared to non-accommodated students with LD, math and reading items were relatively difficult for accommodated students with LD. Moreover, the difference in overall impact on math items was larger than on reading items for accommodated and non-accommodated students with LD. Overall, students without LD and who did not receive a setting accommodation outperformed students with LD and/or who received a setting accommodation as well as accommodated students without LD. It is important to note that, because this was an operational test administration, students were assigned to receive accommodations by their schools based on their individual needs. It is, therefore, not possible to separate the effect of the setting accommodation on item difficulty from the effects of other differences between the accommodated and non-accommodated groups. The differences in math and reading item difficulties between accommodated and non-accommodated students with LD may be due in part to factors such as comorbidity of LD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or a possible mismatch between the setting accommodation and the areas of disabilities. Moreover, the results of the present study support the underarousal/optimal stimulation hypothesis instead of the premise of the inhibitory control and attention for the use of setting accommodation. After controlling for the impact across all items of setting accommodation and LD, several math and reading items were found to exhibit differential item functioning (DIF). The possible sources of DIF were (1) math items that were not adherent to specific item-writing rules and (2) reading items targeting different types of comprehension. This study also found that the linguistic features of math items (total words, total sentences, average word length, monosyllabic words for math) and reading items (word frequency, average sentence length, and average words per sentence for reading) were associated with math and reading item difficulties for students with different characteristics. The total sentences and average word length in a math item as well as total words in a reading item significantly predicted the achievement gap between groups. Therefore, the linguistic features should be taken into account when assessments are developed and validated for examinees with varied characteristics.

This study used multilevel measurement modeling to examine the differential difficulties of math and reading items for Grade 6 students participating in Ontario’s provincial assessment in 2005-2006, in relation to whether they received a setting accommodation, had a learning disability (LD), and spoke a language in addition to English. Both differences in difficulty between groups of students for all items (impact) and for individual items (differential item functioning) were examined. Students’ language backgrounds (whether they spoke a language in addition to English) were not significantly related to item difficulty. Compared to non-accommodated students with LD, math and reading items were relatively difficult for accommodated students with LD. Moreover, the difference in overall impact on math items was larger than on reading items for accommodated and non-accommodated students with LD. Overall, students without LD and who did not receive a setting accommodation outperformed students with LD and/or who received a setting accommodation as well as accommodated students without LD. It is important to note that, because this was an operational test administration, students were assigned to receive accommodations by their schools based on their individual needs. It is, therefore, not possible to separate the effect of the setting accommodation on item difficulty from the effects of other differences between the accommodated and non-accommodated groups. The differences in math and reading item difficulties between accommodated and non-accommodated students with LD may be due in part to factors such as comorbidity of LD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or a possible mismatch between the setting accommodation and the areas of disabilities. Moreover, the results of the present study support the underarousal/optimal stimulation hypothesis instead of the premise of the inhibitory control and attention for the use of setting accommodation. After controlling for the impact across all items of setting accommodation and LD, several math and reading items were found to exhibit differential item functioning (DIF). The possible sources of DIF were (1) math items that were not adherent to specific item-writing rules and (2) reading items targeting different types of comprehension. This study also found that the linguistic features of math items (total words, total sentences, average word length, monosyllabic words for math) and reading items (word frequency, average sentence length, and average words per sentence for reading) were associated with math and reading item difficulties for students with different characteristics. The total sentences and average word length in a math item as well as total words in a reading item significantly predicted the achievement gap between groups. Therefore, the linguistic features should be taken into account when assessments are developed and validated for examinees with varied characteristics.

Contextualization is often added to mathematical achievement items to place targeted mathematical operations in a real world context or in combinations with other mathematical skills. Such items may have unintended sources of difficulty, such as greater cognitive complexity than specified in the test blueprint. These types of items are being introduced to achievement exams through assessment programs such as SBAC and PARCC. Cognitive models have been created to assess sources of cognitive complexity in mathematics items, including a global model (Embretson&Daniel, 2008) and an adapted model (Lutz, Embretson,&Poggio, 2010). The current study proposes a new cognitive model structured around sources of working memory burden with an emphasis on contextualization. Full-information item response (IRT) models were applied to a state accountability test of mathematics achievement in middle school to examine impact on psychometric properties related to burden on working memory.

The ceiling and basal rules of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV; Wechsler, 2008) only function as intended if subtest items proceed in order of difficulty. While many aspects of the WAIS-IV have been researched, there is no literature about subtest item difficulty and precise item difficulty values are not available. The WAIS-IV was developed within the framework of Classical Test Theory (CTT) and item difficulty was most often determined using p-values. One limitation of this method is that item difficulty values are sample dependent. Both standard error of measurement, an important indicator of reliability, and p-values change when the sample changes. A different framework within which psychological tests can be created, analyzed and refined is called Item Response Theory (IRT). IRT places items and person ability onto the same scale using linear transformations and links item difficulty level to person ability. As a result, IRT is said to be produce sample-independent statistics. Rasch modeling, a form of IRT, is one parameter logistic model that is appropriate for items with only two response options and assumes that the only factors affecting test performance are characteristics of items, such as their difficulty level or their relationship to the construct being measured by the test, and characteristics of participants, such as their ability levels. The partial credit model is similar to the standard dichotomous Rasch model, except that it is appropriate for items with more than two response options. Proponents of standard dichotomous Rasch model argue that it has distinct advantages above both CTT-based methods as well as other IRT models (Bond & Fox, 2007; Embretson & Reise, 2000; Furr & Bacharach, 2013; Hambleton & Jones, 1993) because of the principle of monotonicity, also referred to as specific objectivity, the principle of additivity or double cancellation, which “establishes that two parameters are additively related to a third variable” (Embretson & Reise, 2000, p. 148). In other words, because of the principle of monotonicity, in Rasch modeling, probability of correctly answering an item is the additive function of individuals’ ability, or trait level, and the item’s degree of difficulty. As ability increases, so does an individual’s probability of answering that item. Because only item difficulty and person ability affect an individual’s chance of correctly answering an item, inter-individual comparisons can be made even if individuals did not receive identical items or items of the same difficulty level. This is why Rasch modeling is referred to as a test-free measurement. The purpose of this study was to apply a standard dichotomous Rasch model or partial credit model to the individual items of seven core perceptual, verbal and working memory subtests of the WAIS-IV: Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles, Similarities, Vocabulary, Information, Arithmetic Digits Forward, Digits Backward and Digit Sequencing. Results revealed that WAIS-IV subtests fall into one of three categories: optimally ordered, near optimally ordered and sub-optimally ordered. Optimally ordered subtests, Digits Forward and Digits Backward, had no disordered items. Near optimally ordered subtests were those with one to three disordered items and included Digit Sequencing, Arithmetic, Similarities and Block Design. Sub-optimally ordered subtests consisted of Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles, Information and Vocabulary, with the number of disordered items ranging from six to 16. Two major implications of the result of this study were considered: the impact on individuals’ scores and the impact on overall test administration time. While the number of disordered items ranged from 0 to 16, the overall impact on raw scores was deemed minimal. Because of where the disordered items occur in the subtest, most individuals are administered all the items that they would be expected to answer correctly. A one-point reduction in any one subtest is unlikely to significantly affect overall index scores, which are the scores most commonly interpreted in the WAIS-IV. However, if an individual received a one-point reduction across all subtests, this may have a more noticeable impact on index scores. In cases where individuals discontinue before having a chance to answer items that were easier, clinicians may consider testing the limits. While this would have no impact on raw scores, it may provide clinicians with a better understanding of individuals’ true abilities. Based on the findings of this study, clinicians may consider administering only certain items in order to test the limits, based on the items’ difficulty value. This study found that the start point for most subtests is too easy for most individuals. For some subtests, most individuals may be administered more than 10 items that are too easy for them. Other than increasing overall administration time, it is not clear what impact, of any, this has. However, it does suggest the need to reevaluate current start items so that they are the true basal for most people. Future studies should break standard test administration by ignoring basal and ceiling rules to collect data on more items. In order to help clarify why some items are more or less difficult than would be expected given their ordinal rank, future studies should include a qualitative aspect, where, after each subtest, individuals are asked describe what they found easy and difficult about each item. Finally, future research should examine the effects of item ordering on participant performance. While this study revealed that only minimal reductions in index scores likely result from the prematurely stopping test administration, it is not known if disordering has other impacts on performance, perhaps by increasing or decreasing an individual’s confidence.