When and where there is cultural "borrowing there will always "be the possibility of "borrowing words which are associated with it. Since 1868 English has had a remarkable influence on the Japanese language and especially after the Second World War through the wide-spread audio-visual media the number of English loanwords in Japanese, along with new objects or practices introduced, has been increasing. This thesis attempts the overall description of the assimilation of English loanwords into the structure of Japanese so that they may fulfill their communicative function. Since loanwords alone constitute the corpus for the linguistic analysis the analyst is naturally required to adopt rigorously scientific procedures free from the domination of metaphysics and psychology but at the same time it should be borne in mind that we are dealing with the "whole man" expressing himself and his culture. For the purpose of this study English loan-elements are established in the context of situation, i.e. in their socio-cultural context and are then examined at different levels of analysis—Lexical, Grammatical and Phonological, as to their degree of assimilation. The present writer admits mutual working of elements abstracted at different levels of analysis. That is, units obtained at one level might serve to solve the problems left unsolved at the other levels either below or above. In spite of the great number of English loanwords they have been well assimilated into the structure of Japanese. The factors at play in assimilation of loan-elements are: (a) Internal 1. Sheer absence of equivalent exponents at various levels of the Japanese structure 2. pressure of the system 3. productivity of certain forms 4. popular patterns in coinage 5. underdifferentiation of equivalent exponents in Japanese (b) External 1. different channels of borrowing—oral and written 2. the socio-cultural background at the time when the particular element was borrowed 3. the socio-cultural background of the original introducer and/or that of the later users 4. the writing system of Japanese To some extent the future of the Japanese language in connection with cultural borrowing may be predicted. Although the phonological and grammatical systems of a language are not easily affected by cultural borrowings, the gaps in the system may he gradually filled. Fluctuation is more prominent at the lexical level. The symmetry of the language structure at the lexical level requires the presence of terms both generic and specific, abstract and concrete. Some English elements may be added to satisfy these requirements. Some will be added to the set of vocabulary to bring about variety and subtlety in the way experience is articulated. If English elements behave quite distinctively from the native and jiongo elements, it will be methodologically acceptable to admit the existence of different strata within Japanese. Another important feature to be investigated is how far lexical patterning depends on grammar in the process of assimilation of loanwords. / Arts, Faculty of / Classical, Near Eastern and Religious Studies, Department of / Graduate

The Japanese passive voice is quite different from that of English. This thesis is an attempt to investigate the nature of the passive form in Japanese in contrast to the English passive voice and to examine the reasons for the differences. An examination is made of the English passive voice, followed by a contrastive analysis of Japanese transitive-intransitive verbs. Results of the investigation show that to some extent, the usage of Japanese intransitive verbs resembles the passive voice in English. There are three chapters in this thesis. The first chapter deals with an historical discussion of the European passive voice, from the notions of the Greek grammarians to the theories of the transformationalists. Japanese traditional grammar is the subject of the second chapter. The gradual development of the discussion of verbs by Japanese grammarians is outlined. Also, the nature of transitive-intransitive verbs is dealt with and an extensive, though not exhaustive, list of root-related transitive-intransitive verbs is presented. In the final chapter, discussions of the passive forms, by various grammarians are presented. Thereafter, the passive forms are examined by dividing them into two major groups: the ordinary form and the adverse passive form. Each form is syntactically examined and illustrations from literary sources are included. Conclusions show that, semantically, the ordinary passive form is similar to the English passive voice, whereas, the adverse passive form indicates a strong emotional feeling. The romanization of Japanese examples is represented by using Kunrei-Shiki¹ except for the following: /shi/...si, /sha/...sya, /shu/...syu, /sho/...syo, /chi/…ti, /tsu/...tu, /cha/…tya, /chu/…tyu, /cho/...tyo, /ji/...zi These latter symbols represent the verbal and adjectival conjugations much easier than the ordinary Kunrei-Shiki. Syllabic /n/ is represented as N to avoid confusion between such morphemes /tani/ (valley) and /tan'i/ (credit), which are shown as tani and taNi, respectively. These symbols are only used for the examples in the text; Kunrei-Shiki is used for references. English translations of Japanese quotations are mine. Romanization approved by the Japanese Ministry of Education. / Arts, Faculty of / Linguistics, Department of / Graduate

The question of how to represent prosodic structure is of current theoretical interest in three dimensional phonology. Two current theories/models of representation are the onset/rime model (Kaye and Lowenstamm 1982, Kaye Lowenstamm and Vergnaud 1987 and Levin 1985) and the mora model (Hyman 1985, McCarthy and Prince 1986 and Hayes 1988). This thesis consists of a detailed investigation of the descriptive adequacy of these two theories for the Japanese language. Japanese can be considered an archetypal mora language since in the indigenous linguistic tradition it is analysed into moras. The version of each model which I am adopting is explicitly stated in a set of universal syllabification rules. This syllabification algorithm is compatible with the following assumptions: (1) a. No predictable prosodic structure is present in the underlying representation. The distribution of glides in most cases is predictable. b. Prosodic structure is built by rule and is erected around a syllabic peak which is determined by the relative sonority of segments and not by a feature [syllabic]. Furthermore, the version of the onset/rime model I propose is a paramaterized model where the unmarked setting does not include a nucleus constituent. This onset/rime model is designed to account for weight distinctions as well as the mora theory. Sample structures from both theories are given below. (2) [Diagram Omitted] A syllabification algorithm for Japanese is adapted from the general algorithm and fitted into a model of the lexical phonology of Japanese. It is shown that Japanese prosodic structure can be generated by rule, in either model, with no underlying distinctions between glides and high vowels, and with no feature [syllabic]. Therefore, it is concluded that both the onset/rime model and the mora model are adequate for describing the Japanese language. This conclusion crucially depends on the parameterization within the onset/rime model. Because Japanese is not the only language which employs the weight distinctions a Type I model represents, the parameterization is necessary for the onset/rime model to remain equal in descriptive power with the mora model. / Arts, Faculty of / Linguistics, Department of / Graduate

This thesis attempts to explain the functions of the preposing of the direct object in Japanese. Japanese is generally a verb-final language and the basic word order is Subject (S) -> Object (O) -> Verb (V). However, it also has relatively free word order, and a direct object can be preposed to the sentence-initial position forming OSV word order. Although clauses expressed in SOV and OSV word orders are semantically identical, OSV is used much less frequently in comparison to SOV. This thesis examines the motivations behind the preposing of direct objects. As a first step toward understanding the possible functions of OSV word order, this thesis analyzes characteristics of preposed direct objects in its data collected from written materials. The results show that both structural characteristics and the information status of direct objects play roles in preposing. Structural characteristics found in preposed direct objects are that they tend to be lengthy, tend to contain demonstratives, or tend not be a direct object component of idiomatic expressions formed with a direct object and a verb. Preposed direct objects tend to convey information that is either linked to the preceding discourse, is linked to the hearer's knowledge, or is emphasized. The findings also show that the preposing of direct objects is motivated by various reasons depending on what is required to enhance communication in the context. Direct objects that have structurally different characteristics, namely those that contain demonstratives or long direct object phrases, are preposed for easier sentence processing or reference. In order to avoid ambiguity, preposing does not occur when the process would split an idiomatic expression comprised of a direct object and a verb. Preposing of direct objects conveying information linked to either the preceding discourse or the hearer's knowledge creates relevance between the preceding discourse and the present proposition. Preposing direct objects structurally indicates what information is emphasized. In other words, the preposing of direct objects facilitates effective communication. / Arts, Faculty of / Asian Studies, Department of / Graduate

With the consistent popularity of and research regarding games and game play, the educational strategy now known as “gamification” has come more into focus. “Gamified” study tools have begun to populate the market but these tools are almost all designed for solo use. Many pre-existing language learning strategies, and indeed language itself, center around group interaction and are thus less compatible with single player study tools. A study was performed to isolate the variable of group play (multiplayer) in a game based language learning environment. Those participants who reported that they enjoyed the multiplayer game sessions more than the singleplayer session or thought them to be more effective at conveying new grammar displayed a distinct set of characteristics. Namely, these players were regularly more eager to seek out the opinion of others, offer their own opinion, and generally be outgoing. Those who reported the singleplayer sessions to be more enjoyable were regularly more focused on the game elements and less likely to participate in group discussions relating to the language exercises within the game. This suggests that while multiplayer, gamified tools can be effective, they require a certain type of learner or a great deal of intentional design to cater to those who do not naturally gravitate towards such learning styles.

ABSTRACT BEAUTY LOOKS CREATED BY WOMEN: TRADITIONAL BEAUTY AND NEW AESTHETICS FOR WOMEN MAY 2021 YURINA YOSHIKAWA B.A., NANZAN UNIVERSITY M.A., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Professor Amanda C. Seaman In this thesis I focus on comparing the styles of beauty or “looks” that women have created for themselves, as well as concepts of traditional beauty. By doing so, this thesis will clarify how women try to change traditional beauty concepts and express themselves. As anyone who has watched TV in Japan has noticed, Japan has stereotyped aesthetic values of women that mass media such as magazines or TV dramas have created and disseminated. Pictures of beautiful women (bijinga 美人画) and beauty pageants are just two examples. In Japan, women having black hair, white skin, almond-shaped eyes, and well-defined noses are considered beautiful, and this aesthetic has not changed much since the Heian period (794-1185). After the work of Takehisa Yumeji (1884-1934), whose pictures created the foundation of kawaii culture in the Taishō period (1912-1926), women have adopted this new aesthetic category in order to get around the fixed aesthetics of the bijin look. In other words, the start of kawaii culture is one of the turning points for women to evade a monolithic image of what is considered beautiful. However, as kawaii culture spread across the world due to the popularity of manga and anime, the notion of kawaii also began to be fixed by the mass media, becoming as rigid as the notion of bijin. For example, Japanese idols from the Shōwa period (1926-1989) through the Heisei and Reiwa all look alike by design. Many idols have bangs, natural black or dark brown hair, and flat-shaped eyebrows which are attractive to men. To overturn this tendency, some women have created new kinds of makeup styles to express their own version kawaii aesthetics. Ganguro, yamamba, or “gal” makeup were all created by women and popular among young women. In general society—particularly men—did not accept these makeup styles as aesthetically beautiful; the public regarded these looks as not kawaii but rather ugly (busaikuブサイク). However, even though society found looks ugly, this kind of makeup nevertheless became extremely popular among girls and women in their 10s and 20s who regarded such looks as kawaii and trendy. This aesthetic can be seen as what happens when women get around fixed notions of beauty by adopting and transforming the idea and look of kawaii. In this thesis I discuss the development of the kawaii aesthetic and how it becomes a way for women to break out of the tyranny of bijin. I look at a trend of new bijinga and talk about how women are trying to break away from the traditional notion of bijin. Using a collection of contemporary bijinga, I examine how actresses are fighting to do their own makeup for their films, TV programs, or dramas; in particular, actresses Ishihara Satomi and Nanao try to express their own beauty by creating the characters’ looks themselves. In this respect, the characters are original styles of beauty created by these women.

This dissertation is the first monographic study of the monk-calligrapher Yishan Yining (1247-1317), who was sent to Japan in 1299 as an imperial envoy by Emperor Chengzong (Temur, 1265-1307. r. 1294-1307), and achieved unprecedented success there. Through careful visual analysis of his extant oeuvre, this study situates Yishan’s calligraphy synchronically in the context of Chinese and Japanese calligraphy at the turn of the 14th century and diachronically in the history of the relationship between calligraphy and Buddhism. This study also examines Yishan’s prolific inscriptional practice, in particular the relationship between text and image, and its connection to the rise of ink monochrome landscape painting genre in 14th century Japan. This study fills a gap in the history of Chinese calligraphy, from which monk-calligraphers and their practices have received little attention. It also contributes to existing Japanese scholarship on bokuseki by relating Zen calligraphy to religious and political currents in Kamakura Japan. Furthermore, this study questions the validity of the “China influences Japan” model in the history of calligraphy and proposes a more fluid and nuanced model of synthesis between the wa and the kan (Japanese and Chinese) in examining cultural practices in East Asian culture.

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This thesis analyzes the periodical literary magazine ShūKaku [Harvest], a Japanese-language magazine published between 1936 and 1939. The purpose of this analysis is to advance scholarship on pre-World War II Japanese American literature and to explicate the connection between early Japanese American literary aesthetics and the literary periodical format from a transnational perspective. Drawing on established scholarship about early Japanese American literature, historical background, as well as theories from a range of disciplines including transnational, Asian Americanist, and spatial studies, this thesis argues that ShūKaku served as a "space" in which Japanese American writers from different positions—including geophysical, generational, and ideological—could present, theorize, and debate different versions of "Japanese American literature." By dedicating itself to iminchi bungei [immigrant literature], a literary aesthetic movement devoted to representing Japanese American life "as it is," the magazine accommodated a range of works with diverse forms, subjects, and perspectives. Studying these diverse works over the course of the magazine's lifespan reveals not only the different ways in which Japanese Americans conceived of themselves as subjects, but also how they conceived of their own literature, and how those conceptions shifted over time in response to economic and political pressures that resonated from global to local contexts. This thesis additionally extends existing scholarship about ShūKaku by analyzing yet unexplored themes and topics present in the magazine. Part literary analysis and part translation project, this thesis joins a few other scholars in bringing early Japanese American literature into contemporary literary discourse. But many works written by Japanese Americans prior to 1942 remain understudied and undertheorized. Further research will help enrich modern understandings of Japanese American history and may illuminate new ways of reading and theorizing not only pre-World War II Japanese American literature but internment era and post-war Japanese American literature, as well.

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