On August 29, 2005 Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast and storm surges breached levees flooding much of New Orleans, Louisiana. One month after the storm, sediment was collected and toxicity was tested using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos. Sediments with the highest contaminant levels showed the highest embryonic mortality and most delayed development. However, no sediment caused an increased mutant frequency. When the most contaminated site was resampled in February, 2006 contaminant levels and toxicity decreased. During toxicity testing, approximately 20% of embryos incubated with sediment from one of these sites died and turned red. A red bacterium was isolated that is Gram-negative, cocco-baccilus, non-motile, and most similar to Hahella chejuensis based on genetic and metabolic tests. This bacterium caused 100% infection at 108 bacterial cells per ml and variable infection at lower doses. This study was the first to examine biological effects of exposure to post-Hurricane Katrina sediments.

The oil sands, located in north-eastern Alberta, are one of the largest deposits of oil worldwide. Because the Alberta Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act prohibits the release of oil sands process-affected material into the environment, industry is storing vast quantities of tailings on mine lease sites. The oil sands industry is currently accumulating tailings waste at a rate of >105 m3/day, for which reclamation strategies are being investigated. Naphthenic acids (NAs) have been identified as the most toxic component of oil sands tailings as they are considered acutely toxic to a variety of biota, and are therefore a target contaminant for tailings pond reclamation strategies. Current literature based on Microtox® assays (marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri) suggests that lower molecular weight NAs are more toxic than higher molecular weight NAs. The following thesis involves the utilization of NA fractions and their relative toxicities to determine if NA toxicity is related to NA molecular weight. A previous study generated an oil sands-derived naphthenic acid extract (NAE), which was fractionated by distillation at stepped temperatures, yielding five fractions with increasing median molecular weights (Daltons). In the present study, the same extract and five fractions were utilized. To expand on the earlier characterization which involved a low resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), the whole extract and five fractions were analysed using electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (ESI-HRMS) and synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS). Mean molecular weights were generated for each fraction, and an increase in molecular weight with increasing fraction number was confirmed. Respective mean Daltons and relative proportions for each fraction are as follows: 237 and 11.9 % (fraction 1), 240 and 32.3% (fraction 2), 257 and 33.4% (fraction 3), 308 and 16.8% (fraction 4), and 355 and 5.6% (fraction 5). When chemical analyses of fractions were compared, it was determined that structures contributing to increased molecular weight included increased cyclic structures (up to 7-ring structures), aromaticity (mono- and diaromatics), nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen heteroatoms, and dihydroxy/dicarboxy compounds. In addition, characterization data suggested the presence of NAs exhibiting estrogenic structures. Following chemical characterization, NA fractions were subject to embryo/larval bioassays using two fish species: Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka) and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow). Endpoints evaluated were mortality, time to hatch, hatch length, and abnormalities. Results suggest that relative NA fraction toxicity is not related to molecular weight, as no trend relating mean Dalton weight to toxicity was observed for any endpoint in both species. Acute toxicity data indicated differences between fractions as high as 2-fold, although results were species-dependent. Fraction 1 displayed the lowest potency (highest LC50) for both Japanese medaka (0.291 mM) and fathead minnow (0.159 mM). Fractions 3 and 2 for Japanese medaka (0.149 and 0.157 mM, respectively), and fractions 5 and 2 for fathead minnow (0.061 and 0.080 mM, respectively) displayed the greatest potencies for mortality (lowest LC50). When fraction LC50s for Japanese medaka were compared to the whole NAE (0.143 mM), the mid molecular weight fractions (fractions 2 and 3) appeared most similar to the whole NA. . In terms of relative toxicity and proportion, constituents in the mid molecular range fractions (2 and 3) likely represent greater risk compared to other fractions, and further chemical and toxicological characterization of constituents within these fractions is warranted particularly for long-chained, monocarboxylic acids, with low aromaticity. Japanese medaka and fathead minnow varied in their sensitivity and their relative response to different fractions. In general, fathead minnow were more sensitive than Japanese medaka based on lower estimates of LC50 and threshold (growth) values in addition to the presence of developmental abnormalities (predominately yolk sac edema) associated with a few of the fractions. Compared to differences in toxicity between fractions for a given species (>2-fold for fathead minnow), there was more variability between species for a given fraction (> 3-fold for fraction 5). Also, the relative toxicity of fractions as indicated in the present study is contrary to the results generated using Vibrio fischeri for the same fractions. Thus, there is a need for multi- endpoint and species toxicity evaluations to assess the efficacy of remediation and reclamation options for reducing toxicity of oil sands tailings.

The American eel (Anguilla rostrata) has suffered a serious population decline in Lake Ontario since the early 1980s due to a decline in recruitment of juveniles migrating from the Sargasso Sea. This has resulted in the closure of the Lake Ontario fishery in 2004 and its listing as endangered under the Ontario Species at Risk act in June of 2008 in Ontario. Due to their complex life cycle, little is known about eels once they leave their freshwater habitats and migrate to the Sargasso Sea to reproduce. Ocean conditions, habitat destruction, disease, reduced lipid content, over-fishing, physical barriers (hydroelectric dams), and chemical contamination are all possible reasons for recruitment decline and may be acting cumulatively. Maternally derived dioxin-like contaminants (DLCs) accumulated during the growth phase of eels in Lake Ontario are toxic to fish embryos, and embryotoxicity is expressed as a series of malformations known as blue sac disease (BSD). I assessed whether these toxicants are in high enough concentrations in sexually maturing, eels to be embryotoxic to their offspring, as assessed by using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes), a surrogate species. Medaka embryos were first injected with 2,3,7,8-tetracholordibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) to establish their sensitivity to this test chemical expressed as an 11-day EC50 of 3.79 pg/mg, for the induction of BSD. Medaka embryos were injected with eel extracts and their response compared to the TCDD toxicity curve to assess whether extracts caused developmental problems and to estimate the relative concentration of DLCs. Eel extracts from all collection sites caused no dioxin-like toxicity to Japanese medaka embryos. However, significantly higher toxicity at 10 eeq relative to triolein was found for all extracts with no differences among sites, suggesting the presence of non-dioxin-like toxicants. The low level of maternal tissue contamination by DLCs implied by this bioassay is mirrored in chemical monitoring of persistent organic pollutants in Lake Ontario fish. If correct, the low levels of toxicity of extracts to embryos could contribute to the observed increase of eels entering L. Ontario from 2003 to 2008. / Thesis (Master, Biology) -- Queen's University, 2010-09-01 09:31:19.466

The oil sands, located in north-eastern Alberta, are one of the largest deposits of oil worldwide. Because the Alberta Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act prohibits the release of oil sands process-affected material into the environment, industry is storing vast quantities of tailings on mine lease sites. The oil sands industry is currently accumulating tailings waste at a rate of >105 m3/day, for which reclamation strategies are being investigated. Naphthenic acids (NAs) have been identified as the most toxic component of oil sands tailings as they are considered acutely toxic to a variety of biota, and are therefore a target contaminant for tailings pond reclamation strategies. Current literature based on Microtox® assays (marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri) suggests that lower molecular weight NAs are more toxic than higher molecular weight NAs. The following thesis involves the utilization of NA fractions and their relative toxicities to determine if NA toxicity is related to NA molecular weight. A previous study generated an oil sands-derived naphthenic acid extract (NAE), which was fractionated by distillation at stepped temperatures, yielding five fractions with increasing median molecular weights (Daltons). In the present study, the same extract and five fractions were utilized. To expand on the earlier characterization which involved a low resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), the whole extract and five fractions were analysed using electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (ESI-HRMS) and synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS). Mean molecular weights were generated for each fraction, and an increase in molecular weight with increasing fraction number was confirmed. Respective mean Daltons and relative proportions for each fraction are as follows: 237 and 11.9 % (fraction 1), 240 and 32.3% (fraction 2), 257 and 33.4% (fraction 3), 308 and 16.8% (fraction 4), and 355 and 5.6% (fraction 5). When chemical analyses of fractions were compared, it was determined that structures contributing to increased molecular weight included increased cyclic structures (up to 7-ring structures), aromaticity (mono- and diaromatics), nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen heteroatoms, and dihydroxy/dicarboxy compounds. In addition, characterization data suggested the presence of NAs exhibiting estrogenic structures. Following chemical characterization, NA fractions were subject to embryo/larval bioassays using two fish species: Oryzias latipes (Japanese medaka) and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow). Endpoints evaluated were mortality, time to hatch, hatch length, and abnormalities. Results suggest that relative NA fraction toxicity is not related to molecular weight, as no trend relating mean Dalton weight to toxicity was observed for any endpoint in both species. Acute toxicity data indicated differences between fractions as high as 2-fold, although results were species-dependent. Fraction 1 displayed the lowest potency (highest LC50) for both Japanese medaka (0.291 mM) and fathead minnow (0.159 mM). Fractions 3 and 2 for Japanese medaka (0.149 and 0.157 mM, respectively), and fractions 5 and 2 for fathead minnow (0.061 and 0.080 mM, respectively) displayed the greatest potencies for mortality (lowest LC50). When fraction LC50s for Japanese medaka were compared to the whole NAE (0.143 mM), the mid molecular weight fractions (fractions 2 and 3) appeared most similar to the whole NA. . In terms of relative toxicity and proportion, constituents in the mid molecular range fractions (2 and 3) likely represent greater risk compared to other fractions, and further chemical and toxicological characterization of constituents within these fractions is warranted particularly for long-chained, monocarboxylic acids, with low aromaticity. Japanese medaka and fathead minnow varied in their sensitivity and their relative response to different fractions. In general, fathead minnow were more sensitive than Japanese medaka based on lower estimates of LC50 and threshold (growth) values in addition to the presence of developmental abnormalities (predominately yolk sac edema) associated with a few of the fractions. Compared to differences in toxicity between fractions for a given species (>2-fold for fathead minnow), there was more variability between species for a given fraction (> 3-fold for fraction 5). Also, the relative toxicity of fractions as indicated in the present study is contrary to the results generated using Vibrio fischeri for the same fractions. Thus, there is a need for multi- endpoint and species toxicity evaluations to assess the efficacy of remediation and reclamation options for reducing toxicity of oil sands tailings.

Les poissons sont parmi les modèles aquatiques les plus utilisés pour l’évaluationdes dangers des substances chimiques avant leur mise sur le marché européen(REACh (Registration, Evaluation, Autorisation and Restriction of CHemicals)).Actuellement, cette réglementation ainsi que la directive européenne sur la protectiondes animaux utilisés à des fins scientifiques (2010/63/UE) promeuvent la mise enplace de méthodes alternatives en expérimentation animale. Ces méthodes ont pourbut de remplacer les modèles animaux chaque fois que cela est possible, de réduirele nombre d’animaux utilisés en expérimentation et d’optimiser la méthodologieappliquée aux animaux. Cette thèse vise à comparer la sensibilité de deux de cesoutils alternatifs, les lignées cellulaires et les tests embryo-larvaires poissons, enutilisant des toxiques modèles puis mettre en oeuvre ces outils pour évaluer la toxicitéde mélanges environnementaux de polluants : microplastiques et hydrocarbures(pétrole Arabian Light). Les composés modèles (B(a)P, Cd, MMS, PCB126) ont permisde valider trois biomarqueurs : la production d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène surlignées cellulaires de poissons, le test micronoyaux par cytométrie en flux et lechallenge infectieux sur larves de Médaka. Ces biomarqueurs associés à des analyseschimiques, biochimiques et physiologiques ont permis d’évaluer la toxicité demélanges environnementaux d’hydrocarbures (extrait aqueux de pétrole Arabian =WAF) et de microplastiques. Les WAF présentent une toxicité sur les lignéescellulaires de poissons (induction de l’activité EROD, génotoxicité) ainsi que surembryons et larves de Médaka (comportement, biométrie, EROD, génotoxicité). Lespoissons comme les cellules sont particulièrement sensibles au WAF de l’ArabianLight. La contamination aux microplastiques (MP) environnementaux a révélé unetoxicité des contaminants associés au MP sur les lignées cellulaires et les larves depoisson. L’ingestion de particules de plastiques par les larves a induit des effets létauxet sublétaux (biométrie, comportement et EROD). L’ingestion des particules plastiquespar les larves a été confirmée par microscopie biphotonique. Cette étude a permisd’évaluer la sensibilité et la complémentarité de ces outils in vitro pour l’évaluation desdangers et des risques associés aux substances chimiques. / Fish are among the most widely used aquatic model for assessing the chemicalthreat before they are placed on the European market (REACh (Registration,Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of CHemicals)). Currently, this regulation aswell as the European directive on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes(2010/63/EU) promote the establishment of alternative methods in animal testing.These methods are intended to replace animal models whenever possible, to reducethe number of animals used in experiments and to optimize the methodology appliedto animals. This thesis aims to compare the sensitivity of two of these alternative tools,cell lines and fish embryo-larval tests, using model toxicants. Then, these tools wereused to evaluate the toxicity of environmental mixtures of pollutants: microplastics andhydrocarbons (Arabian Light oil). The model compounds (B(a)P, Cd, MMS, PCB126)valid three biomarkers: reactive oxygen species (ROS) production on fish cell lines,micronucleus assay by flow cytometry and infectious challenge on Medaka larvae andjuveniles. These biomarkers combined with chemical, biochemical and physiologicalanalyzes have assessed toxicity of environmental mixtures of hydrocarbons (aqueousextract of Arabian oil = WAF) and microplastics. WAF are toxic to fish cell lines (ERODactivity induction and genotoxicity) as well as to Medaka embryos and larvae (behavior,biometrics, EROD, genotoxicity). Fish like cells seem to be particularly susceptible toArabian Light WAF. Contamination with environmental microplastics (MP) hasrevealed a toxicity of MP-associated contaminants on cell lines and fish larvae. Theingestion of plastic particles by the larvae induced lethal and sublethal effects(biometrics, behavior and EROD). The ingestion of the plastic particles by the larvaewas confirmed by two-photon microscopy. This study assessed the sensitivity andcomplementarity of these in vitro tools for assessing hazards and risks associated withchemicals.

Recent empirical studies have demonstrated inter-generational morphological and life-history changes in fish stocks that have been impacted by size-selective harvest. Evolutionary processes in biological populations occur through differential survival and reproductive success based, in part, upon individual phenotypic variability. Fishing is a source of directional selection resulting in the directed removal of some phenotypes; however, many aspects of the evolutionary effects of fishing remain have yet to be described. In order to better understand the life-history and morphological changes that occur as a result of size-selective fishing, and their effect on fishery dynamics, I first determined the suitability of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) for selection experiments. I performed selection experiments using Japanese medaka and report how morphology and life-history characteristics changed over multiple generations of selection. I then used these patterns of change in life-history and morphology to validate individual-based simulation candidate models to test general mechanisms of life-history relationships. Finally, I applied the individual-based simulation modeling approach in order to describe how biological and fishery characteristics change in a large, age-structured population exposed to size-selective fishing over multiple generations. I found that the Japanese medaka has attractive characteristics for biological investigation. The selection experiments indicated large changes in the age-atmaturity, including a nearly 50% decrease over four generations in the most intense sizeselective removal regimes. However, I did not observe significant changes in length-at-age or weight-at-age over the course of the experiment. Candidate simulation models were poor at predicting some aspects of the life-history characteristics of Japanese medaka. The simulation model to determine fishery characteristics predicted large decreases in yield and egg production as a result of decreases in length-at-age. Understanding the relationships of life-history characteristics and their role in determining population resilience is a step toward understanding the importance of evolutionary processes in fishery management. / Ph. D.

Les sédiments agissent comme de véritable puits pour certains polluants organiques persistants et métaux représentant ainsi une source de contamination secondaire pour les milieux aquatiques. Dans ce contexte, un test embryo-larvaire utilisant le Medaka japonais (Oryzias latipes) a été développé afin d’évaluer la toxicité des polluants fixés aux particules sédimentaires. Le bioessai consiste à maintenir les embryons de Medaka en contact direct avec le sédiment durant tout leur développement embryonnaire puis à évaluer les effets létaux et sublétaux induits au niveau phénotypique et moléculaire chez les embryons et larves exposés. Tout d’abord, le bioessai a été appliqué à la caractérisation de la toxicité et des modes d’action de substances organiques et métalliques pures. Le pyrène et son dérivé, le méthylpyrène, se sont avérés fortement tératogènes avec un spectre de malformations rappelant le syndrome de la maladie du sac bleu. L’étude du profil d’expression génique a révélé la perturbation de certains processus cellulaires notamment la voie AhR, le métabolisme mitochondrial et la voie de signalétique et de métabolisation des rétinoïdes. Le cuivre et le cadmium ont induit de nombreuses malformations squelettiques et cardio-vasculaires, des dommages à l’ADN ainsi que l’altération de l’expression de gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme mitochondrial, la régulation du cycle cellulaire et la réparation de l’ADN. Enfin, le bioessai a été appliqué à l’évaluation du potentiel toxique de sédiments naturels du système Lot-Garonne et du Bassin d’Arcachon. L’ensemble des sédiments testés a montré un large spectre d’effets tératogènes et seuls quelques-uns ont conduit à des effets létaux. Par ailleurs, l’expression plusieurs gènes impliqués dans le métabolisme mitochondrial, la voie AhR, le contrôle du cycle cellulaire, la réparation de l’ADN et la détoxication des métaux a été modifiée lors de l’exposition à certains sédiments contaminés de la zone d’étude. / Aquatic sediments act as real sink for numerous anthropogenic chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals as well as a secondary contamination source. In this context, a fish embryo-larval assay was developed using the Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) as a test organism to evaluate de toxicity of particle-bound contaminants. In this aim, fish embryos are kept in direct contact to sediment during their whole embryonic development and induced lethal and sub-lethal effects are measured at the phenotypical and molecular levels. This test was first applied to the toxicity evaluation and modes of action characterization of organic and metallic single compounds. Pyrene and its alkylated derivative, methylpyrene, revealed a high teratogenic potency inducing developmental deformities similar to the blue sac disease syndrome. Gene expressions response pattern using RT-PCR method highlighted the alteration of several cellular process including AhR pathway, mitochondrial metabolism and retinoids signaling and metabolism pathways. Copper and cadmium mainly induced numerous skeletal and cardiovascular injuries, DNA damage as well as modifications of gene expression involved in mitochondrial metabolism, DNA damage repair and cell cycle regulation. Finally, the Medaka embryo-larval assay was applied to analyze the toxic potential of natural sediments form the Lot-Garonne system and the Arcachon bay. All tested sediments showed a wide range of teratogenic effects but only few of them revealed to be acutely toxic. Moreover, the expression of several genes involved in mitochondrial metabolism, AhR pathway, cell cycle arrest, DNA repair and heavy metals detoxication proved to be modified in the presence of some contaminated sediments from the studied area.

La majorité des polluants organiques persistants, tels que les hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAP), sont hydrophobes et de ce fait s’accumulent au cours du temps dans les sédiments aquatiques. Dans ce contexte, des tests ont été mis en œuvre sur embryons et pro-larves de truite arc-en-ciel Oncorhynchus mykiss et de médaka japonais Oryzias latipes pour étudier la toxicité de ces contaminants. Un sédiment artificiel et de nouveaux critères d’effets sur l’intégrité de l’ADN et l’activité natatoire ont été développés pour améliorer la reproductibilité et la sensibilité des tests. Ces bioessais ont été appliqués à la comparaison de la toxicité de trois mélanges de HAP : un extrait pyrolytique et deux extraits issus d’un pétrole léger Arabian Light et lourd de type Erika. Les trois mélanges de HAP ont été enrobés sur un sédiment artificiel ou sur des graviers à des concentrations comparables à celles retrouvées dans l’environnement. L’exposition des embryons à ces matrices contaminées a provoqué des perturbations de l’expression de gènes impliqués dans le fonctionnement mitochondrial, le métabolisme de la vitamine A, la formation de dommages à l’ADN ainsi que la synthèse d’hormones. Parallèlement ces mélanges ont induit des effets tératogènes, des perturbations de l’activité natatoire et des effets génotoxiques. Le degré de toxicité et le spectre d’effets induits étaient différents selon la composition des mélanges testés. Les mélanges pétrogéniques présentant une forte proportion en HAP de faibles poids moléculaires et HAP alkylés, se sont avérés plus toxiques envers les jeunes stades de développement de poissons que le mélange pyrolytique, composé en majorité de HAP à hauts poids moléculaires non substitués. Des résultats comparables ont été obtenus avec les modèles médaka japonais et truite arc-en-ciel. / Most persistent organic pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are hydrophobic and therefore accumulate over time in aquatic sediments. In this context, tests were performed on rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and Japanese medaka Oryzias latipes embryos and prolarvae to study the toxicity of these contaminants. Artificial sediment and new integrative endpoints including DNA integrity and swimming activity were developed to improve reproducibility and sensitivity of the tests. These bioassays were applied to the toxicity assessment of three PAH mixtures: a pyrolytic extract and two petrogenic extracts from Arabian Light and Erika oils. The three PAH mixtures were spiked onto sediment or gravel at environmental relevant concentrations. Embryonic exposure to these contaminated matrices induced alteration of gene expressions involved in mitochondrial functions, vitamin A metabolism, DNA damages and hormone synthesis. In parallel, these mixtures induced teratogenicity, alteration of swimming activity and genotoxicity. The toxicity potency and spectrum of effects differed according to PAH mixture composition. The petrogenic mixtures, with high proportions of low molecular weight PAHs and alkylated PAHs, were more toxic to fish early life stages than the pyrolytic mixture, mainly composed of high molecular weight PAHs non substituted. Comparable results were obtained with Japanese medaka and rainbow trout early life stages.

<div>Following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, extensive research has been conducted on the toxicity of oil and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the aquatic environment. The location and timing of the Deepwater Horizon surface slick coincided with the spawning seasons of many important pelagic and estuarine fish species. As such, there has been particular emphasis placed on the effects of PAHs on sensitive life history stages in fish, such as the embryonic and larval periods. Additionally, the spill occurred throughout the spring and summer months which, in estuaries, are marked by regular fluctuations in abiotic environmental factors such as dissolved oxygen, salinity, and temperature. Until recently, there has been little work done to elucidate the combined effects that PAHs from oil spills and adverse environmental conditions (hypoxia, increased salinity, and elevated temperatures).</div><div>Work presented in this dissertation uses next generation sequencing technology (RNA Seq) to determine differential gene expression in larval estuarine teleosts following exposure to adverse environmental conditions and PAHs. Downstream canonical pathway and toxicological function analysis were then applied to the identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) to predict cardiotoxic responses at the organismal level. To verify the predicted responses, a phenotypic anchoring study was conducted and identified a cardiotoxic phenotype (pericardial edema) and reduced cardiac output in embryos exposed to oil. Finally, the mechano-genetic interplay governing the morphological development of the teleost heart was investigated and correlations between developmental gene expression and blood flow forces within the cardiovascular system were identified.</div>