The prediction of the flows and temperatures in the moderator system of CANDU reactors is important in the safety evaluation during some potential transients. An experimental program to collect data for CFD validation, including integrated moderator circulation tests has been funded by the CANDU Owners Group. This thesis constitutes a separate effect test within this larger moderator flow study, investigating the behaviour of a jet impinging onto a single heated cylinder. A number of experiments were conducted to investigate the behaviour of the jet flow under a variety of scenarios. The inlet Reynolds number and the heater power level were the primary variables considered to assess the impact of the buoyant forces generated by the heated cylinder on the flow. Alongside the experiments, simulations were performed using the experimental geometry to evaluate the performance of some of the most commonly-used turbulence modelling approaches – namely the standard k-ε, realizable k-ε, and standard k-ω RANS models. The agreement between the turbulence models and experimental results was determined to be reasonable in the free jet regions, however nearer the cylinder, the simulated results exhibited a wider core region and steeper gradient in the shear layer than the experimental data. At lower Reynolds numbers, over-prediction of velocities both in the axial and lateral direction was also seen. The impact of heating proved minimal in the jet core, however differences were observed in the shear layer at lower Reynolds numbers, and the heated case exhibiting decreased lateral velocities as compared to the isothermal case. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

A three-dimensional flow field produced by supersonic twin-jet impingement is studied using a large eddy simulation (LES). The numerical model consists of two parallel axisymmetric jets of diameter 𝐷*, 3𝐷* apart, issuing from a plane which is at a distance H*=4𝐷* above the ground. The jet diameter 𝐷*, mean velocity 𝑊ₒ*, mean density 𝜌ₒ* and mean temperature 𝑇ₒ* at the jet center in the exit plane are used as reference values. The Mach number and Reynolds number of the jets are M=1.5 and Re=550,000, respectively. This model is closely related to the experimental setup of Elavarasan <i>et al.</i>(Elavarasan <i>et al.</i>, 2000). The three-dimensional time-dependent compressible Navier-Stokes equations are solved using the method of lines. The convective terms are discretized using a fifth-order WENO scheme, whereas the viscous terms are discretized using a fourth-order central-differencing scheme. A low-storage five-stage fourth-order Runge-Kutta scheme is used to advance the solution in time. Code verification is achieved by comparison with flat-plate boundary-layer linear stability analysis, and computational data by Bendiks <i>et al.</i> (Bendiks <i>et al.</i>, 1999). for a compressible turbulent round jet. Instantaneous flow, mean flow and Reynolds stresses for the twin-jet impingement are presented and discussed. The results reveal the existence of flapping behavior in the fountain. The flapping fountain is the vortical structure formed by the alternating merging of a primary vortex tube with a secondary vortex tube induced by the neighboring primary vortex tube. The nondimensional period of flapping is found to be 7𝐷*/𝑊ₒ*. High unsteadiness and strong interaction between the fountain and the jets are also observed. Due to the high diffusion and spreading rate of the fountain, the interaction between the fountain and the jets is only significant up to a height which is less than 3𝐷*. It is found that the mean peak velocity in the fountain is 0.40406 𝑊ₒ* and it occurs at 0.536607𝐷* from the ground. The suitability of the fifth-order WENO scheme to simulate turbulent flow field with embedded shocks is also demonstrated by its capability to capture unsteady shock waves in the impingement regions. / Ph. D.

Controlled cooling is an important part of steel production industry that affects the properties of the outcome steel. Many of the researches done in controlled cooling are experimental. Due to progress in the numerical techniques and high cost of experimental works in this field the numerical work seems more feasible. Heat transfer analysis is the necessary element of successful controlled cooling and ultimately achievement of novel properties in steel. Heat transfer on the surface of the plate normally contains different regimes such as film boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling and radiation heat transfer. This makes the analysis more complicated. In order to perform the heat transfer analysis often empirical correlations are being used. In these correlations the velocity and pressure within the fluid domain is involved. Therefore in order to obtain a better understanding of heat transfer process, study of hydrodynamics of the fluid becomes necessary. Circular jet due to its high efficiency has been used vastly in the industry. Although some experimental studies of round jet arrays have been done, yet the characteristics of a single jet with industrial geometric and flow parameters on the surface of a flat plate is not fully understood. Study of hydrodynamics of the jet impingement is the first step to achieve better understanding of heat transfer process. Finite element method as a popular numerical method has been used vastly to simulate different domains. Traditional approaches of finite element method, Lagrangian and Eulerian, each has its own benefits and drawbacks. Lagrangian approach has been used widely in solid domains and Eulerian approach has been widely used in fluid fields. Jet impingement problem, due to its unknown free surface and the change in the boundary, falls in the category of special problems and none of the traditional approaches is suitable for this application. The Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation has emerged as a technique that can alleviate many of the shortcomings of the traditional Lagrangian and Eulerian formulations in handling these types of problems. Using the ALE formulation the computational grid need not adhere to the material (Lagrangian) nor be fixed in space (Eulerian) but can be moved arbitrarily. Two distinct techniques are being used to implement the ALE formulation, namely the operator split approach and the fully coupled approach. This thesis presents a fully coupled ALE formulation for the simulation of flow field. ALE form of Navier-Stokes equations are derived from the basic principles of continuum mechanics and conservation laws in the fluid. These formulations are then converted in to ALE finite element equations for the fluid flow. The axi-symmetric form of these equations are then derived in order to be used for jet impingement application. In the ALE Formulation as the mesh or the computational grid can move independent of the material and space, an additional set of unknowns representing mesh movement appears in the equations. Prescribing a mesh motion scheme in order to define these unknowns is problem-dependent and has not been yet generalized for all applications. After investigating different methods, the Winslow method is chosen for jet impingement application. This method is based on adding a specific set of partial differential Equations(Laplace equations) to the existing equations in order to obtain enough equations for the unknowns. Then these set of PDEs are converted to finite element equations and derived in axi-symmetric form to be used in jet impingement application. These equations together with the field equations are then applied to jet impingement problem. Due to the number of equations and nonlinearity of the field equations the solution of the problem faces some challenges in terms of convergence characteristics and modeling strategies. Some suggestions are made to deal with these challenges and convergence problems. Finally the numerical treatment and results of analyzing hydrodynamics of the Jet Impingement is presented. The work in this thesis is confined to the numerical simulation of the jet impingement and the specifications of an industrial test setup only have been used in order to obtain the parameters of the numerical model.

Abstract Jet impingement heat transfer is an enhanced heat transfer technique.This article reports results on the local heat transfer coefficients for confined impinging air jet.A transient thermochromatic liquid crystals technique is used to visualize and record isotherms on an impingement surface. Quantitative temperature measurement using thermochromatic liquid crystals is a field temperature measurement technique. It utilizes the feature that TLCs change their reflex light colors with variation of temperature and apply an image capturing and processing system to calibrate the characteristic curve of TLCs colour-temperature,and then use it to measure the distribution of surface temperature. Therefore , it can solve some problem that cannot be solved by traditional point Temperature measuring methods in heat transfer field. The main object of this articale is to set up a temperature measurement system of transient thermochromatic liquid crystals. Furthermore, an experimental is carried out in the present study to investigate the characteristics of heat transfer resulting from a low speed air jet impinging onto a horizontal circular disk confined in a vertical adiabatic cylindrical chamber. Experiments are conducted at low nozzle-to-disc spacing (0.5<H/D <3.5) and Reynolds number in the range of500 to 1500 for two different injection pips. The results show that the effects of Reynolds number and nozzle-to-disc spacing on the local heat-transfer coefficient are reported and compared with different diameter of injection pipes.Finally , empirical equations are proposed to correlate the effect of Reynolds number and nozzle-to-disc spacing .

Controlled cooling is an important part of steel production industry that affects the properties of the outcome steel. Many of the researches done in controlled cooling are experimental. Due to progress in the numerical techniques and high cost of experimental works in this field the numerical work seems more feasible. Heat transfer analysis is the necessary element of successful controlled cooling and ultimately achievement of novel properties in steel. Heat transfer on the surface of the plate normally contains different regimes such as film boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling and radiation heat transfer. This makes the analysis more complicated. In order to perform the heat transfer analysis often empirical correlations are being used. In these correlations the velocity and pressure within the fluid domain is involved. Therefore in order to obtain a better understanding of heat transfer process, study of hydrodynamics of the fluid becomes necessary. Circular jet due to its high efficiency has been used vastly in the industry. Although some experimental studies of round jet arrays have been done, yet the characteristics of a single jet with industrial geometric and flow parameters on the surface of a flat plate is not fully understood. Study of hydrodynamics of the jet impingement is the first step to achieve better understanding of heat transfer process. Finite element method as a popular numerical method has been used vastly to simulate different domains. Traditional approaches of finite element method, Lagrangian and Eulerian, each has its own benefits and drawbacks. Lagrangian approach has been used widely in solid domains and Eulerian approach has been widely used in fluid fields. Jet impingement problem, due to its unknown free surface and the change in the boundary, falls in the category of special problems and none of the traditional approaches is suitable for this application. The Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation has emerged as a technique that can alleviate many of the shortcomings of the traditional Lagrangian and Eulerian formulations in handling these types of problems. Using the ALE formulation the computational grid need not adhere to the material (Lagrangian) nor be fixed in space (Eulerian) but can be moved arbitrarily. Two distinct techniques are being used to implement the ALE formulation, namely the operator split approach and the fully coupled approach. This thesis presents a fully coupled ALE formulation for the simulation of flow field. ALE form of Navier-Stokes equations are derived from the basic principles of continuum mechanics and conservation laws in the fluid. These formulations are then converted in to ALE finite element equations for the fluid flow. The axi-symmetric form of these equations are then derived in order to be used for jet impingement application. In the ALE Formulation as the mesh or the computational grid can move independent of the material and space, an additional set of unknowns representing mesh movement appears in the equations. Prescribing a mesh motion scheme in order to define these unknowns is problem-dependent and has not been yet generalized for all applications. After investigating different methods, the Winslow method is chosen for jet impingement application. This method is based on adding a specific set of partial differential Equations(Laplace equations) to the existing equations in order to obtain enough equations for the unknowns. Then these set of PDEs are converted to finite element equations and derived in axi-symmetric form to be used in jet impingement application. These equations together with the field equations are then applied to jet impingement problem. Due to the number of equations and nonlinearity of the field equations the solution of the problem faces some challenges in terms of convergence characteristics and modeling strategies. Some suggestions are made to deal with these challenges and convergence problems. Finally the numerical treatment and results of analyzing hydrodynamics of the Jet Impingement is presented. The work in this thesis is confined to the numerical simulation of the jet impingement and the specifications of an industrial test setup only have been used in order to obtain the parameters of the numerical model.

Controlled cooling is an important part of steel production industry that affects the properties of the outcome steel. Many of the researches done in controlled cooling are experimental. Due to progress in the numerical techniques and high cost of experimental works in this field the numerical work seems more feasible. Heat transfer analysis is the necessary element of successful controlled cooling and ultimately achievement of novel properties in steel. Heat transfer on the surface of the plate normally contains different regimes such as film boiling, nucleate boiling, transition boiling and radiation heat transfer. This makes the analysis more complicated. In order to perform the heat transfer analysis often empirical correlations are being used. In these correlations the velocity and pressure within the fluid domain is involved. Therefore in order to obtain a better understanding of heat transfer process, study of hydrodynamics of the fluid becomes necessary. Circular jet due to its high efficiency has been used vastly in the industry. Although some experimental studies of round jet arrays have been done, yet the characteristics of a single jet with industrial geometric and flow parameters on the surface of a flat plate is not fully understood. Study of hydrodynamics of the jet impingement is the first step to achieve better understanding of heat transfer process. Finite element method as a popular numerical method has been used vastly to simulate different domains. Traditional approaches of finite element method, Lagrangian and Eulerian, each has its own benefits and drawbacks. Lagrangian approach has been used widely in solid domains and Eulerian approach has been widely used in fluid fields. Jet impingement problem, due to its unknown free surface and the change in the boundary, falls in the category of special problems and none of the traditional approaches is suitable for this application. The Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation has emerged as a technique that can alleviate many of the shortcomings of the traditional Lagrangian and Eulerian formulations in handling these types of problems. Using the ALE formulation the computational grid need not adhere to the material (Lagrangian) nor be fixed in space (Eulerian) but can be moved arbitrarily. Two distinct techniques are being used to implement the ALE formulation, namely the operator split approach and the fully coupled approach. This thesis presents a fully coupled ALE formulation for the simulation of flow field. ALE form of Navier-Stokes equations are derived from the basic principles of continuum mechanics and conservation laws in the fluid. These formulations are then converted in to ALE finite element equations for the fluid flow. The axi-symmetric form of these equations are then derived in order to be used for jet impingement application. In the ALE Formulation as the mesh or the computational grid can move independent of the material and space, an additional set of unknowns representing mesh movement appears in the equations. Prescribing a mesh motion scheme in order to define these unknowns is problem-dependent and has not been yet generalized for all applications. After investigating different methods, the Winslow method is chosen for jet impingement application. This method is based on adding a specific set of partial differential Equations(Laplace equations) to the existing equations in order to obtain enough equations for the unknowns. Then these set of PDEs are converted to finite element equations and derived in axi-symmetric form to be used in jet impingement application. These equations together with the field equations are then applied to jet impingement problem. Due to the number of equations and nonlinearity of the field equations the solution of the problem faces some challenges in terms of convergence characteristics and modeling strategies. Some suggestions are made to deal with these challenges and convergence problems. Finally the numerical treatment and results of analyzing hydrodynamics of the Jet Impingement is presented. The work in this thesis is confined to the numerical simulation of the jet impingement and the specifications of an industrial test setup only have been used in order to obtain the parameters of the numerical model. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Mechanical Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Cooling techniques for high density electrical components and electronic devices have been studied heavily in recent years. The advancements in the electrical/electronic industry have required methods of high heat flux removal. Many of the current electrical components and electronic devices produce a range of heat fluxes from 20 W/cm2 – 100 W/cm2 . While parallel flow cooling systems have been used in the past, jet impingement is now more desirable for its potential to have a heat transfer coefficient 3-5 times greater than that of parallel flow at the same flow rate. Problems do arise when the jet impingement is confined and a cross flow develops that interacts with impinging jets downstream leading to a decrease in heat transfer coefficient. For long heated surfaces, such as an aircraft generator rotor, span wise fluid management is important in keeping the temperature distribution uniform along the length of the surface. A detailed simulation of the heat/mass transfer on a three-layer impingement/effusion cooling system has been conducted. The impingement jet fluid enters from the top layer into the bottom layer to impinge on the heated surface. The spent fluid is removed from the effusion holes and exits through the middle layer. Three different effusion configurations were used with effusion diameters ranging from 0.5 mm to 2 mm. Temperature uniformity, heat transfer coefficients, and pressure drops were compared for each effusion diameter arrangement, jet to target spacing (H/d), and rib configuration. A Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence fluid model was used within ANSYS CFX to simulate all design models. Three-layer configurations were also set in series for long, rectangular heated surfaces and compared against traditional cooling methods such as parallel internal flow and traditional jet impingement models. The results show that the three-layer design compared to a traditional impingement cooling scheme iii over an elongated heated surface can increase the average heat transfer coefficient by 75% and reduce the temperature difference on the surface by 75%. It was shown that for a three layer design under the same impingement geometry, the average heat transfer coefficient increases when H/d is small. The inclusion of ribs always provided better heat transfer and centralized the cooling areas. The heat transfer was increased by as much as 25% when ribs were used. The effusion hole arrangement showed minimal correlation to heat transfer other than a large array provides better results. The effusion holes’ greatest impact was found in the pressure drop of the cooling model. The pressure losses were minimal when the effective area of effusion holes was large. This minimizes the losses due to contraction and expansion.

<p> Determination of boiling heat transfer rate during liquid jet impingement cooling (LJIC) depends on the intensity of bubble generation that is dependent on many flow and surface conditions such as jet velocity, liquid temperature, and surface superheat. Many empirical correlations have been developed previously to determine the total wall heat flux under various LJIC flow velocity, subcooling and surface superheat. However, only few studies have been able to model the governing heat transfer mechanisms associated with LJIC. In many industrial applications, there is a need to determine the effect of any changes in processing parameters on the total rate of heat transfer. Mechanistic heat transfer models can fulfill such need and allow for efficient model modifications at minimum cost and time.</p> <p> Three models have been developed in this study that address the underlying physics associated with jet impingement heat transfer in both single phase and nucleate boiling regimes. The first model accounts for the effect of bubble generation on the overall heat transfer rate at the jet stagnation by introducing a bubble-induced diffusivity (BID). The BID is added to molecular diffusivities in the momentum and energy Equations. The BID model adopts an analogous approach to the eddy diffusivity concept used in turbulence flow modeling. The BID model has been developed to provide a cost effective simulation tool of boiling heat transfer during LJIC by considering bubble generation effect on the overall heat transfer rate while avoiding the need to simulate extremely small time and length scales associated with phase change.</p> <p> The second model is a scenario identification procedure (SIP) that has been developed to predict the bubble growth termination (BGT) scenario. Considering the effect of jet velocity, water subcooling and surface superheat, the SIP identifies whether a bubble would locally collapse or slide by identifying the most probable equilibrium condition (thermal or dynamic) that the bubble would reach first. The main objective of the SIP is to avoid any inaccurate assumption of the probable BGT scenario. In this case, such procedure could improve the predictions of a more comprehensive wall heat flux model of the areas affected by various heat transfer mechanisms.</p> <p> The third model is a mechanistic wall flux partitioning (WFP) model that has been developed to predict the local wall heat transfer rate over the distance between jet stagnation and ten times the jet width. The WFP model assumes that primary heat transfer is due to sensible heating of liquid by forced convection and transient conduction. The WFP model incorporates a unified single-phase heat transfer model that is capable of capturing the observed secondary peaks downstream of stagnation. The WFP model also incorporates a sub-model that predicts abrupt changes in the liquid film thickness due to the formation of hydraulic jumps.</p> <p> The development of these three models have been carried out using experimental data obtained from a set of experiments that has been conducted to investigate the variation of the heat transfer rate and bubble dynamics under a planar free liquid jet. Investigation of bubble dynamics has been conducted using both intrusive optical probe and non-intrusive high speed imaging of the flow filed. The experiments have been conducted at atmospheric pressure, considering jet velocity of 0.4 to 1.7 m/s, degree of water subcooling of 10 to 28 °C, degree of wall superheat of -25 to 30 °C. Such variations have been studied along a heated surface between stagnation and ten times the jet width. Experiments were conducted using a 1 mm x 8 mm planar jet impinging on a heated horizontal flat copper surface. The distance between the jet and the heated surface was 10 mm. The experimental data have been used to develop a group of sub-models for single-phase heat transfer, bubble diameter, bubble population density, bubble release frequency, and bubble growth time. These sub-models have been used in the closure of the aforementioned models.</p> <p> The three models have been validated using independent experimental data. The BID model is capable of predicting stagnation heat flux within -15% and +30%. The SIP model was able to predict the right bubble growth termination scenario of 80% of the investigated cases. The WFP model is capable of predicting the local total wall heat flux within± 30%.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The effect of superhydrophobicity on liquid water impingement on a flat horizontal surface was explored. The surfaces combined a hydrophobic surface chemistry with a patterned microstucture in order to produce high contact angles with water. Three sets of experiments were performed, one for jet impingement and two for droplet impingement, which advance previous work in characterizing the interaction of water and superhydrophobic surfaces.Jet impingement experiments were performed to characterize a transitional regime between an unsubmerged and a completely submerged superhydrophobic surface by varying an imposed downstream depth. For low downstream depths, the surface remained unsubmerged and displayed only break up of the thin film, while at high downstream depths, the surface was completely submerged and only a hydraulic jump occurred. Within the transition, the surface was partially submerged and both thin film breakup and a hydraulic jump were observed. Experiments were performed for three Reynolds numbers, Re, ranging from 1.9 x 104 to 2.2 x 104 (based on the volume flow rate). For all Re, the transition was characterized by a reduction in the hydraulic jump radius as downstream depth increased. Also, as Re increased, the downstream depths over which the transition occurred was greater. When a droplet impinges on a surface covered with a liquid film, a thin liquid wall, or crown, forms and propagates outward. Here a comparison of this crown dynamic was made for smooth hydrophilic surfaces and superhydrophobic (SH) surfaces patterned with post or rib microfeatures. Due to the high contact angle of the SH surfaces, a relatively thick film (h ≈ 5 mm) of water was required to maintain a film. This resulted in negligible differences between the surfaces utilized. Droplet train impingement on the same post and rib SH surfaces was also investigated. When each individual droplet impinged on the surface, a crown formed which spread out radially until reaching a semi-stable or regularly oscillating breakup diameter. At this point, the water would either build up or breakup into droplets or filaments and then continue radially outward. In some cases the crown would break up, causing splashing. A comparison to previous experiments on hydrophilic surfaces shows a distinct difference in splashing at low frequency. The breakup diameter was measured over a Weber number range of 72-2800. The data was collapsed as a function of a combination of the Reynolds number (Re), Capillary number (Ca), and Strouhal number (St), resulting in Re0.7CaSt. The rib SH surface displayed an elongated breakup due to the anisotropic surface features. The breakup diameter for the droplet train was compared to the breakup diameter which has been shown to occur with a jet impinging on a SH surface.

This dissertation focuses on the effects of superhydrophobic (SHPo) surfaces on thermal transport. The work is divided into two main categories: thermal transport without phase change and thermal transport with phase change. Thermal transport without phase change is the topic of four stand-alone chapters. Three address jet impingement at SHPo surfaces and the fourth considers natural convection at a vertical, SHPo wall. Thermal transport with phase change is the topic of a single stand-alone chapter exploring pool boiling at SHPo surfaces.Two chapters examining jet impingement present analytical models for thermal transport; one considered an isothermal wall and the other considered an isoflux wall. The chapter considering the isothermal scenario has been archivally published. Conclusions are presented for both models. The models indicated that the Nusselt number decreased dramatically as the temperature jump length increased. Further, the influence of radial position, jet Reynolds number, Prandtl number and isoflux versus isothermal heating become negligible as temperature jump length increased. The final chapter concerning jet impingement reports an experimental exploration of jet impingement at post patterned SHPo surfaces with varying microfeature pitch and cavity fraction. The empirical results show a decrease in Nusselt number relative to smooth hydrophobic surfaces for small pitch and cavity fraction and the isoflux model agrees well with this data when the ratio of temperature jump length to slip length is 3.1. At larger pitch and cavity fractions, the empirical results have higher Nusselt numbers than the SHPo surfaces with small pitch and cavity fraction but remain smaller than the smooth hydrophobic surface. We attribute this to the influence of small wetting regions. The chapter addressing natural convection presents an analytical model for buoyant flow at a vertical SHPo surface. The Nusselt number decreased dramatically as temperature jump length increased, with greater decrease occurring near the lower edge and at higher Rayleigh number. Thermal transport with phase change is the topic of the final stand-alone chapter concerning pool boiling, which has been archivally published. Surface heat flux as a function of surface superheat was reported for SHPo surfaces with rib and post patterning at varying microfeature pitch, cavity fraction, and microfeature height. Nucleate boiling is more suppressed on post patterned surfaces than rib patterned surfaces. At rib patterned surfaces, transition superheat decreases as cavity fraction increases. Increasing microfeature height modestly increases the transition superheat. Once stable film boiling is achieved, changes in surface microstructure negligibly influence thermal transport.