M.Sc. / The Mamatwan mine is situated at the most southern end of the world’s largest landbased resource of manganese, the Kalahari manganese field. The mine is operated by South African Manganese Corporation Limited (SAMANCOR) and is the largest open pit manganese mine in the world. The sedimentary manganese ore bed is interbedded with iron-formation of the Hotazel Formation of the Early Paleoproterozoic Voëlwater Subgroup of the Transvaal Supergroup. The open pit Mamatwan mine has a proven economic ore reserve of between 300 and 400Mt and produces 1.2Mt of manganese ore annually, of which 0.5Mt of ore is beneficiated and shipped through the harbour at Port Elizabeth. The remaining ore is railed to ferro-alloy plants at Meyerton and Newcastle. Carbonate-rich manganese lutite mined at the Mamatwan Mine is widely known as Mamatwan-type ore. It has a manganese content ranging from 30 – 38%. Only a small portion (15m of a total thickness of 49m) of the ore bed, containing an average of 38% Mn, is being mined and processed at present. The larger portion of the ore bed is not utilized. This study focuses on the physical and chemical characteristics of the ore bed in more detail in order to make suggestions on how to a) reduce waste by upgrading the upper parts of the lower manganese ore bed, or b) to improve the current recovery from the present economic zone. A second part of this study pays special attention to the lithostratigraphy of the lower manganese ore bed. The focus is on the paragenetic sequence and the diagenetic evolution of the braunite lutite that constitutes the manganese ore. The Mamatwan-type ore can be described as diagenetic to very low-grade metamorphic carbonate-bearing braunite manganolutite. Based on geochemical and mineralogical data, the lower manganese ore body was previously subdivided into eleven lithogically distinct zones. Based on detailed diamond drill core logging and with the aid of geochemical and physical data of two selected drill cores, an additional thirteen subzones were identified in this study. These new subzones were found to be consistent across the entire study area, located to the west and north of the present Mamatwan open pit. The paragenetic sequence recognised in the ore of the lower manganese ore bed can be subdivided into four stages, namely: (a) sedimentation, which is represented by fine lamination and the presence of fine-grained “dusty hematite”. (b) early diagenesis as represented by micritic carbonate matrix and possibly braunite, (c) late diagenesis or low-grade metamorphism are represented by coarse grained hausmannite, specularitic hematite, partridgeite and Mn-calcite, and supergene alteration that occurs immdediately below the contact of the ore bed to the unconformably overlying Tertiary Kalahari Formation. This supergene altered zone is marked by the presence of Mn4+ oxides such as cryptomelane, manjiroite, romanechite and pyrolusite, in addition to barite. The results obtained in this study permit definition of two sedimentary cycles within the manganese ore bed at the Mamatwan mine. Both cycles are defined by a carbonate-rich finely laminated zone at the base, overlain by a central manganese-rich economic zone, capped by manganese lutite that is enriched in carbonate ovoids. The two manganeserich zones are known as the M (lower) and X (upper) zone, and are characterized by the replacement of carbonate ovoids by hausmannite. The two Mn-rich zones are chemically and physically almost identical, with the M zone 7.5m thick and the X zone 5.5m thick. However, in the present mining configuration only the M zone is being mined. The most important result arising from the present study is the recommendation to restructure the future mining operation in order to mine not only the M zone, but also the X zone.

The Kalahari Group sediments cover vast portions of the Archean Kaapvaal and Congo cratons that are considered highly prospective for economic kimberlites. In southern Africa, the term Kalahari refers to a structural basin, a group of Cretaceous to recent terrestrial continental sediments and an ill-defined desert, all of which have been grouped together as the Mega Kalahari by Thomas and Shaw (1993). The Mega Kalahari grouping includes sediments stretching from South Africa in the south to the Democratic Republic of Congo in the north, and from eastern Namibia to western Zimbabwe. This sand sea, at 2.5 million km², is the largest on earth and presents significant obstacles and challenges to the kimberlite explorationist attempting to locate bedrock-hosted diamondiferous kimberlite bodies. The Mega Kalahari sediments represent an ancient depositional environment with a complex history in which the stratigraphy and age of the deposits are not particularly well constrained or understood. Low fossil content, limited exposure, poor differentiation of the dominant surficial Kalahari Sand and a limited comprehension of an extensive duricrust suite has delayed the understanding of the sedimentological and environmental history of the basin. This sequence of sediments has accumulated and evolved through fluvio-deltaic, aeolian and groundwater processes, with characteristics due to primary deposition and subsequent modification being difficult to distinguish. Deposition in the Kalahari Basin has been subject to tectonic influences, changes in drainage directions and source areas of sediments, river capture and numerous large and small climatic fluctuations both in the basin and surrounding areas. It bears the imprint of recurring cycles during which the same sediments were reworked, sometimes by different agencies, all of which exacerbate attempts to correlate sedimentary units across the sequence. The Mega Kalahari is a series of contiguous Phanerozoic sedimentary basins situated within the African Superswell. The Superswell has dominated the gross geomorphology of southern Africa and contributed significantly to the present character of the Mega Kalahari and the evolution of the drainage systems. Overall, the tectonic framework established in southern Africa by the division of Gondwanaland led to the creation of a dual drainage system, with the hingeline acting as a watershed between a coastally-orientated exoreic system and an endoreic system draining into the interior. Deposition of sediments started in the late Cretaceous. Neo-tectonic activity expressed in the rifting in central Botswana, further influenced sedimentation rates and exerted a strong control over paleo-drainage directions. This revIew presents the complexities of the Kalahari cover sequence. The most Important geomorphological and sedimentary factors to be considered when designing and implementing kimberlite exploration programs within the Mega Kalahari environment are outlined and discussed. New data from exploration drilling programs are presented on the thickness of the Kalahari within portions of northern Namibia, western Zambia and Botswana. / KMBT_363 / Adobe Acrobat 9.54 Paper Capture Plug-in

Kalaharituber pfeilii (Henn.) Trappe & Kagan-Zur commonly known as the “Kalahari truffle” is a desert truffle species identified from the Kalahari region of southern Africa. Two other species, Eremiomyces echinulatus (Trappe & Marasas) Trappe & Kagan-Zur and Mattirolomyces austroafricanus (Trappe & Marasas) Trappe & Kovacs are also known to occur in other parts of southern Africa. Truffles are hypogeous fruiting bodies of Ascomycetes, important to humans for their nutritional value and medicinal characteristics. These truffles are known as desert truffles as they prefer to occur under arid or semi-arid conditions characteristic of deserts. Truffle development depends on the presence of a mycorrhizal host, associated microorganisms as well as soil and climatic characteristics. It has been suggested that K. pfeilii has a suspected broad plant host range which includes herbaceous to woody trees and shrubs. However, these relationships have not been verified. Indigenous people of the Kalahari believe that truffles are found under grasses. In the Kalahari, truffle fruiting bodies are often found entangled in Stipagrostis ciliata (Desf.) De Winter var. capensis (Trin. & Rupr.) De Winter roots. S. ciliata, also known as the tall bushman-grass, is the most common grass found in the Kalahari. The objective of this study was to provide conclusive evidence that S. ciliata var. capensis is a host of the Kalahari truffle. Truffle fruiting bodies and grass roots from where the truffles were found were collected from Upington, South Africa. The fruiting bodies were identified by observing their morphological characteristics using the ‘Keys of Truffle genera’. All observed physical properties were similar to those of K. pfeilii and further identification was done using molecular techniques. DNA was extracted from the fruiting bodies, mycelial cultures, rhizosheaths and from the S. ciliata var. capensis grass roots, which were then amplified using the specific K. pfeilii specific primers TPF3 and TPR1 and sequenced. The obtained sequence results confirmed that the collected fruiting bodies were those of the K. pfeilii and the molecular techniques also confirmed that K. pfeilii DNA was present in the S. ciliata var. capensis rhizosheath and root cells. Microscopy showed an ectendomycorrhizal association between K. pfeilii and S. ciliata var. capensis. Mycorrhizal resynthesis experiments were conducted to establish this mycorrhizal association in-vitro. They were unsuccessful because of the structure of the grass and the availability of contaminants. And more...

Why do animals make false alarms; are false alarms truly deceptive; and if, just as in Aesop's fable 'The boy who cried wolf' , animals can learn to ignore false alarms, why doesn't deception break down? I investigated these questions in a population of habituated and individually recognisable fork-tailed drongos (Dicrurus adsimdis), in the South African Kalahari Desert. Drongos either self-foraged, when they hawked and gleaned small insects, or followed other species stealing large terrestrial prey that hosts excavated. Stealing food from other species enabled drongos to capture prey otherwise unavailable to them and accounted for over 20% of their biomass intake. This was of greatest benefit during the morning and on colder days when payoffs from stealing remained stable while those from self-foraging declined (Chapter 3). Drongos stole food using two strategies, either by physical attack or by producing false alarm calls in response to which hosts fled to cover, enabling drongos to fly down and collect abandoned food. False alarms increased overall success, and were produced when stealing small food items unprofitable to gain by physical attack, or when stealing from larger species more likely to defend food (Chapter 4). Drongos produced both their own alarm calls and mimicked alarm calls of other species in their false alarm repertoire. Playback experiments on two host species, pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor) and meerkats (Suricata suricatta), confirmed that these false alarm calls were deceptive because they were as effective at alerting hosts as true alarms given to approaching predators (Chapter 5). Further playbacks showed that hosts were more likely to be deceived by mimicked false alarm calls, including mimicry of the host species alarms, than by a drongo' s own alarms. In addition, host species habituated to repeated playback of the same alarm but resumed their response when a new alarm call was played, and drongos naturally changed their alarm calls when hosts failed to respond to a previous false alarm. Therefore, by employing vocal mimicry to vary their alarm calls drongos were both more likely to deceive hosts, and to maintain deception. Consequently drongos evaded the frequency dependent constraints which typically limit payoffs from deception when species produce only one signal (Chapter 6). The drongos sophisticated communication strategy raises questions for future research regarding the mechanisms leading to the production of complex behaviour.

Observations by local people in the Mier area, southern Kalahari, South Africa, indicated that degraded rangeland does not recover within a time frame acceptable to landowners. Pristine vegetation in this linear dune system consists largely of a herbaceous layer dominated by perennial grasses. Woody vegetation is sparse on dunes and interdunes in good condition. The dunes and interdunes react differently to disturbance, probably because of differences in substrate stability, soil particle size distribution and consequent differences in soil nutrient distribution and moisture content. Degraded dunes are devoid of any vegetation, except for Stipagrostis amabilis, a rhizomatous grass which remain in small clumps, and the tree Acacia haematoxylon. The latter increases in numbers probably due to the high moisture content in degraded dunes. Moisture content in degraded dunes remain high even during prolonged dry periods. Interdunes are more susceptible to degradation and are invaded by the long-lived shrub Rhigozum trichotomum and the annual grass Schmidtia kalahariensis. Both these species compete with perennial grasses for moisture. Additionally, depleted seed banks and increased seed predation by ants (Messor capensis) may also affect the re-establishment of perennial grasses in the interdunes. The main conclusion from this study is that degraded southern Kalahari rangeland cannot recover spontaneously at the landscape scale because of a negative feedback mechanism that prevents establishment and growth of seedlings. The hypothesis put forward is that rangeland ceases to react to rainfall as an ecosystem driver as it becomes degraded. Once degraded, wind controls the dynamics of the system and recovery, irrespective of rainfall, is almost impossible. In contrast, detailed studies at the level of small isolated populations of S. amabilis and S. ciliata on degraded dunes indicate high rates of population growth. The scales at which these processes exist are contradictory and may not be contradicting. Rangeland managers should take cognisance of the influence of the spatial and temporal scale at which they operate, and on which they base their decisions. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

The hilltop archaeological site, Bosutswe in Botswana had a nearly a thousand years of continuous occupation. Nearly every single strata in both precincts produced shell beads of various materials and origin. By using travelogue sources as well as more recent enthnographical sources, I focus on the possible uses and importance of beads to the people of Bosutswe and the wider southern African region. Using the excavated beads as evidence, I show how certain varieties of beads made their way to the site by way of trade routes with distant riverine areas. Also, I compare my findings with arguments claiming that different groups preferred different sizes beads; therefore, one can determine a site’s ethnic makeup by this measurement alone. / text

Chemical sediments in a variety of geomorphic environments (pedogenic, fluvial, palustrine, lacustrine and pan) were investigated from seven regions (SW Kalahari, Kgalagadi, Kalkweissrand, Etosha, Linyanti, Okavango and Ngami) in the Kalahari of southern Africa. These primary and multi-phase sediments were characterised by a range of pure and intergrade silcrete, calcrete and dolocrete fabrics which contained an array of structures indicative of the crystalline and biogenic processes responsible for their precipitation, epigenesis and paragenesis. Petrography, mineralogy and isotope geochemistry provided significant insight regarding the environmental and geochemical conditions at the time of precipitation. Petrography indicated that the majority of chemical sediments were undergoing epigenetic modification as a consequence of the desiccation induced transition from phreatic to vadose diagenetic and geochemical conditions. The role of rapidly infiltrating meteoric water, associated with unstable wetting fronts, is believed to be instrumental in vadose diagenesis and the precipitation of crystalline/alpha fabric carbonate. Salinisation within the capillary fringe and deeper vadose zone is believed to be responsible for the sequence dolomitisation of crystalline calcite within mature sequences. Highly saline pan conditions instigate the precipitation of authigenic dolomite, calcite and K-feldspar within the surface sediments and authigenic silica at depth. Phreatic water beneath the islands, floodplains and fluvial systems of the Okavango, which undergoes evapotranspirational and transmission salinisation and ultimately terminal desiccation, are similarly precipitating silcrete. Pedogenic processes principally associated with C₄ vegetation are responsible for the gratification of carbonate mud within desiccating lacustrine, palustrine and pan sediments. Within the thin sandy Kalahari soils, pedogenesis is limited, but biogenic/beta fabric precipitation linked to mycorrihizae and tree/shrub savanna vegetation is instrumental in the formation of hardpans and the modification of upper calcrete horizons. The dominance of a distinct assemblage (smectite/kaolinite or sepiolite/palygorskite) of authigenic clay minerals present within all the environments provides evidence of semi-arid precipitation within Mg and Ca enriched saline/rapidly evaporating water or brackish/reduced permeability environments.

The focus in this project is on the analysis of empirical evidence collected from the #Khomani and Ngwatle communities relating to representation, theories of reflexivity and research methodology, as well as responses to The Healing Land (2001) by Rupert Isaacson, in relation to research methodology, representation and ethical concerns. This project will examine if and how research can be beneficial to the San, and interrogate whether auto-ethnography/reflexivity as research methodology can be used as a way of representing indigenous people in ways that empower them. Films and books often give little indication of how, by whom and for what reasons they were produced, which imposes limitation on the knowledge gained by the reader/viewer. Reflexivity is a methodology that incorporates the producer and the production process into the final product. Reflexivity directs attention to the' process and the power relations involved in constructing cultural texts. Representation of the San Bushmen has had a long history of othering, of perpetuating colonial domination. The "Other is never simply given, never just found or encountered, but made" (Fabian, 1990:755). The application of reflexive methodology could have the potential to undo the perceptions and stereotypes projected by unidimensional films, writing and pop-anthropology which give no indication of/attempt to disguise the relationship between producer, process, product and viewer in the representation of indigenous people. Awareness of the interaction between observer and observed also leads to consideration of ethics, power relations and responsibility of academics and filmmakers towards their subjects. This project discusses encounters in the Kalahari in relation to research methodology, auto-ethnography and representation. The primary text critiqued is Rupert Isaacson's book The Healing Land (2001). The application of reflexivity to my own project incorporates discussion of methodology, the nature of the encounter, and negotiating my own subjectivities. "To be reflexive is to structure a product in such a way that the audience assumes that the producer, the process of making, and the product are a coherent whole. Not only is an audience aware of these relationships, but they are made to realise the necessity of that knowledge" (Ruby, 1977:4). Unrealistic and disempowering representation of the San is related to their political and social marginalisation. This also relates to the issue of responsibility of researchers to the subject communities which are their sources of images and information. The subject communities have certain expectations of academics and filmmakers. If these expectations are not met or fulfilled in some way, the local informants tend to feel that they are being exploited. The San often have unrealistic expectations and are unaware of the differences between profit-making films and research; financial constraints on academics, writers and filmmakers; and the processes by which policy is implemented that prevent their hunger and thirst being immediately alleviated (Tomaselli, 2001a). I attempt to test these kinds of assertions and examine whether there are instances where the San feel that they have benefited from and are satisfied by the encounter, and how the principles allowing for a mutually beneficial encounter can be developed. Thus this project will deal with empowerment and development for the San. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Ground pangolins Smutsia temminckii are inconspicuous, mainly nocturnal mammals that occur at low population densities. As a result, there is scant information available on the ecology and physiology of this species. To date the handful of studies focussing on this species were centred in the mesic eastern regions of its range, with no attention being given to ecological and biological traits in arid environments. To address these data shortfalls, a study was undertaken in the Kalahari Desert in northwestern South Africa. Very High Frequency (VHF) transmitters or Global Positioning System (GPS) loggers were fitted to 16 ground pangolins and their ecology and physiology studied over a period of three years. Throughout its range the ground pangolin is increasingly endangered, predominantly due to anthropogenic threats. Previous studies have identified threats facing this species, but very few of these studies included quantitative data as to the extent of these threats. The present study suggests that the main threats to ground pangolins in southern Africa are electrocution on electrified fences, the traditional medicine trade, habitat loss, road mortalities and capture in gin traps. Although accidental poisoning has previously been viewed as a threat, a review of the available literature suggests that this is not the case and that these views stemmed from two isolated incidents of captive animals. Electrocutions probably pose the greatest threat to ground pangolins, with mortality rates of one pangolin per 11 km of electrified fence per year recorded during this study. Home range sizes of this arid-zone population are comparable to the home range sizes recorded in mesic populations. Study animals in the Kalahari had Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) home range values of 10.0 ± 8.9 km² SD for adults and 7.1 ± 1.1 km² SD for juveniles, in comparison to the 0.17 – 23.38 km² MCP in Zimbabwe and 1.3 – 7.9 km2 MCP in mesic north-eastern South Africa. These results are surprising as arid-zone animals usually have larger home ranges than do their mesic counterparts. It is hypothesised that this discrepancy is due to the fact that ground pangolins in the Kalahari are on average 25 – 30 % smaller than their mesic counterparts. This smaller body size means that individuals require a smaller home range to meet their dietary requirements, which could be counteracting the trend of arid-zone individuals requiring larger home ranges. This research also found ground pangolins to be more active during the day in winter and nearly entirely nocturnal during summer. These changes in photoperiodicity are likely driven by adaptations to the extreme climatic conditions present at the study site rather than predation pressure or changes in food resources, although the latter may be playing a role as well. By being diurnal in winter, individuals avoid the extremely cold night-time temperatures, thus saving energy that would otherwise be spent on maintaining their body temperature. By contrast, becoming nocturnal in summer allows them to avoid the extreme daytime temperatures, thus conserving water. The results of this study reiterate previous findings that ground pangolins are entirely myrmecophagous and highly selective of the species that they eat. Study animals were recorded feeding on only four ant and two termite species, representing 7.5 % and 50 % of the total species richness of each of these families. This is similar to previous research in mesic savannahs where five ant one termite species constituted 97 % of the ground pangolin’s diet. No seasonal differences in prey selection were observed, although the species consumed did depend on the habitats that were available to individual ground pangolins. This study is the first to investigate the core body temperature (Tb) of a free-ranging pangolin. These data indicated that Tb fluctuated cyclically between 32 – 35 °C and reflected the activity periods of the animal, peaking when the animal was active. When the individual was inactive, Tb steadily decreased, suggesting that it used daily heterothermy to cope with the low food availability in this unpredictable environment. In summary, ecological parameters between arid and mesic ground pangolin populations are similar in some respects, but divergent in others. Arid-zone populations are smaller overall and show a higher degree of diurnal activity. Despite this smaller body size, home range values appear to be similar between arid and mesic populations. Although the prey species eaten by ground pangolins in the Kalahari differ from prey species in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, they belonged to the same genera and were of similar morphology and ecology. The core body temperature results confirm findings from previous captive studies that pangolin body temperatures are lower than those of other eutherian mammals of a similar size. Furthermore, these data indicate that core body temperature is a lot more variable than previously believed, and thus warrants further study. Overall ground pangolin densities in the Kalahari appear to be double those in eastern South Africa and Zimbabwe, although it is unclear whether this is genuine or whether it is an artefact of individuals being easier to locate in the Kalahari. This study also confirmed that electrocutions are probably the greatest threat to this species, and new threats such as accidental capture in gin traps and road mortalities have also come to light. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

Vast advances in technology have presented a platform for mediated forms to reach places where it was never before thought possible. Once remote communities can now be more easily accessed and in turn have easier access to modern ways of life. In light of this, Bushmen communities have been forced, due to a number of factors, to transform or adapt many their everyday cultural practices - one of which is tracking. Two Bushman post-hunter communities, the ≠Khomani from Witdraai in the Northern Cape of South Africa and the !Xoo who reside in Ngwatle in Southern Botswana, are the focus of a comparative analysis which assesses how the two communities use tracking, how they represent tracking and how they construct their identity through these representations. Louis Liebenberg’s extensive literature on the subject of tracking compounded with his groundbreaking research on CyberTracking provides an invaluable resource. It offers a contrasting scientific vantage point in comparison to J. Edward Chamberlin’s (2004) holistic anthropological approach to aboriginal cultures. Work central to demystifying the data includes debates within globalisation theory (Anthony Giddens 1990; David Held and Anthony McGrew 2000; Terhi Rantanen 2005), the homogenisation and heterogenisation of culture and Stuart Hall’s theory of essentialist and non-essentialist identity (1996). The data was obtained through research field trips to the areas in 2005 and 2007 respectively, and informs part of a larger project, Rethinking Indigeneity, headed by Professor Keyan G. Tomaselli. The subject communities contrast one another not only in how they represent themselves, but also how and why they practice tracking. The !Xoo, in comparison to the ≠Khomani, are less exposed to global media and as a result are considerably less aware of expectations attached to their ethnicity. This correlation provides an interesting link between cultural practices, remote communities and global media infiltration. It becomes apparent that culture is in a constant state of flux which is further emphasised through idiosyncratic cultural practices; in this case tracking. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.