Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Wildlife Management / unrestricted

The thesis focuses on ‘green’ sample preparation techniques that utilise minimal or no organic solvents thereby producing negligible volumes of organic waste, to ensure safety both to user and the environment. Volatile compounds were extracted and pre-concentrated from Kgalagadi desert truffles (kalaharituber) by headspace solid phase microextraction (HSSPME) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). PHWE was employed for the extraction of amino acids and fatty acids. Subsequent analysis of volatile compounds was carried out by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Four types of HS-SPME fibers (PDMS 100 μm, PDMS 7 μm, Polyacrylate 85 μm, CAR/DVB/PDMS 50/30 μm) were evaluated. A total of 24 volatile compounds with a molecular weight range from 110 to 354, the most prominent peak being 2-t-Butyl-2,3-dimethyl-3-buten-1-ol (C₁₀H₂₀O, MW 156) were detected after sampling with a PDMS 100 μm fiber. Less volatile compounds were detected after SFE with CO2. A total of 16 amino acids were identified while 17 fatty acids (MW from 132.12 to 367.49) were also identified. The characteristic profile of the Kgalagadi desert truffle was found to contain mainly fatty acid methyl esters and unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. The most prominent compound peaks identified were; 2-t-butyl-2,3-dimethyl- 3-buten-1-ol, disulfide, ethyl benzoic acid 2-4-dhydroxy-3,6-dimethyl-methyl ester, 8,11- octadecanoic acid methyl ester, benzoic acid, 2,4-dihydroxy-3,6-dimethyl-methyl ester, isoquinoline, 1 butyl-3,4-dihydro and 3-heptanone, 6 methyl. Optimization results indicated that fresh slices from the heart of truffles were the best to use for HS-SPME-GCMS volatile compound analysis as they showed a higher sensitivity

Springbok Antidorcas marsupialis ecology was examined on the South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in the Kalahari, with the use of public questionnaires and field forms. Statistically significant differences were found between data that were collected by public respondents and the researcher when using the same questionnaire. Questionnaires are useful for gathering large amounts of data, but should be carefully structured to ensure the quality of the data. Feeding was the most common activity of springbok and the frequency thereof varied during the day and between seasons. Environmental conditions and seasonal changes affected the feeding behaviour of springbok in the southwestern Kalahari. Springbok fed in direct sunlight in the mornings and moved into the shade during the afternoon. More time was spent feeding in the shade during the warmer months than during the colder months, especially under northerly to northeasterly wind directions. Herd sizes were found to increase during the cold-dry season and decreased during the hot-wet season. Springbok and blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus taurinus displayed niche separation by competition avoidance. Springbok utilized natural licks. Night-time observations of springbok were made during different seasons and habitats on the South African side of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in 2003. Nocturnal feeding behaviour was described in the context of other similar studies. Feeding times were highlighted, yet the role and importance of nocturnal feeding remains unclear. The nutritional content of some southwestern Kalahari food plant species were determined. The nutrients in the sampled plants showed a wider fluctuation range than plants in other regions. Phosphorus levels in the Kalahari were found to be low in general and calcium levels were higher than in other regions. Browse species contained higher crude protein levels than grass species. The nutritional value of the plants was lowest during the cold-dry season and highest during the hot-dry one. The nutritional status of springbok in the southwestern Kalahari was assessed by using faecal profiling. The faecal nutritional status for springbok populations in different habitats and seasons was examined. Faecal nutrient levels confirmed springbok as mixed feeders with a diet composition that was between that of true browsers and grazers. Faecal concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen were similar to that of springbok in other areas, but phosphorus intake was shown to be low, particularly during the cold-dry season. Phosphorus appears to be a limiting nutrient and may cause nutritional stress in springbok in the southwestern Kalahari during dry periods. / Dissertation (MSc (Botany))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Plant Science / unrestricted

Contemporary conservation and development understanding in both policy and academic circles espouses that natural resources have a significant contribution to the livelihoods of local people and that knowledge of this can better foster conservation policies that are consistent with livelihood and ecological needs. This thesis is based on research conducted in the southern Kalahari region, South Africa among the San and Mier communities bordering Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. It looks at the importance of natural resources to the San and Mier community groups and ascertains the extent of resource use and its value within broader livelihood portfolios. It also focuses on the cultural values of natural resources and interactions among institutions and actors and how these shape natural resource governance and livelihood outcomes. Overall, natural resources represent an important livelihood source contributing up to 32 % and 9 % of the total income of the San and Mier respectively or up to 46 % and 23 % if livestock incomes are included. However, the dependence on, diversification patterns and distribution of natural resource income vary substantially between and within the two communities. With regards to the cultural values attached to natural resources by the San and Mier, the findings show that these arise from an incredibly diverse and sometimes conflicting array of values that punctuate the two communities’ way of life and they are inextricably linked to resource use. Lastly, governance of natural resources in the co-managed Park and communitymanaged resettlement farms is characterised by complex institutional arrangements, compounded by the existence of multiple actors that have multiple and sometimes conflicting objectives – as shaped by different meanings and interpretations of natural resources. Heightened inter- and intra-community conflicts are common, notably resource use conflicts between the San and Mier and between the San ‘modernist’ and ‘traditionalist’ groups. This demonstrates that the communities’ livelihood dynamics in general and the dependence on natural resources in particular, are closely linked with ecological, economic and social factors including history, culture and present livelihood needs. By exploring the social-environment interactions, the study highlights the complexities and diversity of resource use for livelihoods that should be taken into consideration for both conservation and development policy interventions and research. The main argument of the study is that the contribution of natural resources to local livelihood portfolios in co- and community-managed areas, can be better understood through a consideration of cultural dynamics and institutional arrangements since these condition natural resource access, value and use.

Thesis (D. Tech.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2009 / All over the African continent south of the Sahara Desert, African lion numbers are plummeting to levels where, over large areas of their remaining distribution range, extinction has become a real threat. The main reason for the decreasing numbers is the increasing conflict between livestock farmers and lions. Lions are forced to kill livestock where their natural prey has been squeezed out by livestock and associated farming practices, and the farmers find it necessary to protect their livelihoods, often through the indiscriminate killing of lions. In the Kgalagadi-South region of Botswana, lion/livestock interactions present a challenge to livestock owners and wildlife managers alike. The relatively low ecological carrying capacity and occupied lion habitats in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) force some expelled young adult and sub-adult lions southwards into the adjoining Wildlife Management Area (WMA) KD/15, which separates the KTP and the communal grazing area. This WMA most likely also contains resident prides. Some of these predators sporadically enter the livestock grazing area. Similarly, large stock often enters the WMA. It is mostly these boundary transgressions that result in livestock killing, and the reaction of livestock owners often leads to the killing of lions. To gather information concerning the nature and extent of the situation, two questionnaires were prepared with the assistance of the Department of Biostatistics of the University of the Free State, South Africa. One questionnaire targeted livestock owners while the other was aimed at wildlife officials of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Botswana and SANParks in South Africa. Both covered the five-year period 2002-2006. A trial run was carried out to adjust to problem-specific circumstances before fieldwork commenced. Fieldwork was done during four consecutive seasons – in January, February, April and December 2007. Thirty livestock respondents and 13 wildlife officials were interviewed during the first two excursions into the study area. The third visit was to plot the cut-line between the WMA and the grazing area (by means of a Global Positioning System or GPS) and to make first-hand observations regarding movement over the cut-line. During all four visits the environmental (including grazing) conditions and density and distribution of wildlife and stock were observed in both the WMA and the grazing areas. The information gathered points towards a seemingly unsolvable situation. The exceptionally high daytime temperatures and food scarcity, brought about by erratic rainfall, overgrazing near boreholes, generally low carrying capacity and low phosphorus (P) levels, force large stock, i.e. cattle, horses, donkeys and mules, to graze far away from the safety of the cattle-posts during the cool hours of the night, thus making kraaling impractical. Such circumstances enhance exposure to lion predation especially in or near the WMA and the KTP fence. Some lions also penetrate deep into the grazing areas, especially in the arid western part of the study area. This study revealed certain weaknesses in current wildlife and livestock management practices in the study area, the sum of which put both farmers and the lion population under extreme pressure. Most of these shortcomings can be rectified without drastic invasive methods. Such adjustments can result in improved livestock and wildlife utilisation and protection of the lions. For example: the placement of mixed phosphorus and salt licks near cattle-posts to fulfil the need for vital micro and macro elements; addressing unnecessary livestock losses, which contribute to a lower income and less tolerance towards predation (e.g. botulism, which may stem from stock chewing on bones in their desire for more phosphorus, and losses to black-backed jackal, Canis mesomelas, in poorly maintained kraals); more drinking troughs at boreholes to prevent unnecessary shoving and minimise energy waste; and the introduction of more bulls to herds to increase the calving percentage. The study further concluded that there is little reason why stockowners should consider protecting lions. It suggests that significant value can be added to the wildlife (and the protection of lions) in the specific area by making farmers and other local residents share in the relatively untapped ecotourism potential of the area.

Thesis (MScFor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Free-ranging lions (Panthera leo) in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) have been subject to persecution by farmers following livestock depredation in adjacent grazing areas. In recent years at least one adult female was killed annually from a sub-population of five boundary prides that have home ranges adjoining these livestock grazing areas. While no long-term records of human-caused mortality are available, the impact of current rates of human-caused mortality is uncertain. Female-based, age-structured models were thus used to estimate the long-term viability of the KTP lion sub-population subjected to human-caused mortality under deterministic and stochastic environmental conditions. Population parameters incorporated in the models included age-class specific natural mortality, female fecundity and birth sex ratio. In so doing sustainable threshold rates of persecution were established, so that effective conservation measures can be taken, if required, to ensure the continued survival of boundary prides in the park. Sensitivity analyses of natural survival rates indicated that adult female survivorship is the most important population parameter with respect to maintaining population viability, compared to younger female age-classes, fecundity or birth sex ratio. Hence adults were also the most sensitive age-class with respect to human-caused mortality, as adult survival repeatedly acts upon individuals with the highest reproductive value. In the deterministic model, with the most optimistic survival parameter values, fecundity and birth sex ratio (female-biased) estimates, the sub-population is only able to sustain an annual persecution of three adult females, before the sub-population exhibits a sustained decline. In the worst-case scenario, where fecundity and sex ratio estimates are at their lower extremes, the maximum sustainable age-class specific persecution rate is zero, for all age-classes. Whilst these hypothetical scenarios are unrealistic, they do highlight the extreme thresholds of potentially sustainable persecution rates. Under the most optimistic scenario using the stochastic model, the highest achievable survival probability of the sub-population, when subjected to a persecution rate of one adult annually, was 78%. Although increased fecundity and birth sex ratio biased towards females may increase the survival probability, these parameters are generally at their mean values in the long-term, and may thus not necessarily prevent a sustained population decline. The models therefore suggest that the current persecution rate of one adult annually (or 4% of the adult sub-population), appears unsustainable in the longterm. To ensure the survival of existing boundary prides and to maintain a viable subpopulation, adult lionesses should, as far as possible, be afforded protection from persecution. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vrylewende leeus (Panthera leo) in die Kgalagadi Oorgrenspark (KTP) is onderworpe aan vervolging deur boere as gevolg van predasie op vee in aangrensende weidingsgebiede. In onlangse jare is ten minste een volwasse wyfie uit ‘n subpopulasie van vyf troppe met loopareas wat aan die weidingsgebiede grens, jaarliks uitgewis. Geen langtermyn rekords van vrektes as gevolg van menslike oorsake is beskikbaar nie, en die impak van vrektes wat deur mense veroorsaak word, is dus onseker. Wyfie-gebaseerde, ouderdomgestruktureerde modelle is daarom gebruik om te voorspel wat die langtermyn lewensvatbaarheid is van die KTP leeu subpopulasie wat onderworpe is aan vrektes deur menslike invloede onder deterministiese en stogastiese omgewingsfaktore. Bevolkingsfaktore wat deur die modelle in ag geneem is, sluit ouderdomsgroep-spesifieke natuurlike vrektes, aanwas van wyfies en geboorte geslagsverhouding in. Sodoende is volhoubare uitwissingstempos bepaal sodat, indien nodig, effektiewe bewaringsmeganismes toegepas kan word om die voortbestaan van troppe in die grensgebiede van die park te verseker. Sensitiwiteitsanalises van natuurlike oorlewingstempos het aangetoon dat volwasse wyfies se oorlewing die belangrikste bevolkingsfaktor is om die bevolking se lewensvatbaarheid te volhou vergeleke met jonger wyfie ouderdomsgroepe, aanwas of geslagsverhouding by geboorte. Daarom was volwassenes ook die sensitiefste vir vrektes as gevolg van menslike invloede, omdat die oorlewing van volwassenes herhaaldelik inwerk op individue met die hoogste reproduktiewe waarde. In die deterministiese model met die mees optimistiese oorlewing, aanwas en geboorte verhouding (wyfie-gebasseerde) beramings, is die subpopulasie slegs in staat om ‘n jaarlikse uitwissing van drie volwasse wyfies te onderhou, voordat die sub-populasie ‘n volgehoue afname toon. In die uiterste geval waar aanwas en geslags verhouding skattings op die laagste is, is die maksimum volhoubare ouderdomsklasspesifieke beramings nul vir alle ouderdomsklasse. Terwyl hierdie hipotetiese senario’s onrealisties is, onderstreep dit die uiterste vlakke van potensiële volhoubare uitwissingstempos. Onder die mees optimistiese senario – ‘n uitwissingstempo van een volwassene jaarliks – met die gebruik van die stogastiese model, was die hoogste haalbare oorlewingswaarskynlikheid van die sub-populasie 78%. Alhoewel ‘n toename in aanwas en geboorte geslagsverhouding (met oorhelling na wyfies), ‘n toename in oorlewingswaarskynlikheid tot gevolg kan hê, is hierdie faktore oor die algemeen gemiddeld oor die langtermyn en sal dit nie noodwendig ‘n volgehoue afname in die populasie verhoed nie. Die modelle dui daarop dat die huidige uitwissingstempo van een volwassene (of 4% van die volwasse sub-populasie) op ‘n jaarlikse grondslag onvolhoubaar is oor die langtermyn. Om die oorlewing van bestaande troppe in die grensgebiede, asook ‘n lewensvatbare subpopulasie, te verseker, moet volwasse leeuwyfies so ver as moontlik teen vervolging beskerm word.

Thesis (MScConEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Previously, conservation activities were mainly focussed upon the establishment of protected areas that safeguarded and shielded the natural world from misuse, often resulting in the forced removal of indigenous communities. In South Africa, the ≠Khomani Bushmen, were one such group forcibly evicted from their homelands. Today, the community has regained access to their ancestral lands in the form of a land claim, settled in 1999, that awarded the community land rights in the form of six farms and land use rights within the now Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). This gave them the right to use and manage their property falling within the park together with the conservation authority responsible for the Park, South African National Parks (SANParks). This study aims to improve our understanding of the use of resources by the ≠Khomani Bushmen. By obtaining insight on resource use and how knowledge of this use is transferred and shared, information on how to better involve and integrate the community in management processes is generated. The study identified the most important plants currently used within the ≠Khomani community and assessed this use. Additionally, social network analysis (SNA) was used to investigate how the social network structure depicts the distribution of knowledge which affects the community’s ability to manage their natural plant resources effectively. In an ethnobotanical survey, over 90 individuals were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews, on the farms awarded to the community. In total, 59 plant species from 28 families were found to be in use. Medicinal plants were most frequently cited (60%), with edible plants comprising a further 20%. Data was also collected on social relations surrounding the acquisition, generation and transfer of plant use knowledge. The knowledge networks all depict isolated individuals on the periphery and a few individuals loosely connected to central structures. This study demonstrates that wild plant use remains an important practice for the ≠Khomani people, primarily for medicinal purposes. It serves as baseline data on plant resources being used by the community and adds to our understanding of how traditional knowledge is being transmitted. The insight provided by SNA depicts the current distribution of knowledge and should be used by the community, as supported by network weavers and SANParks, to achieve their joint management goals. Network weaving can potentially counteract ecologically unsustainable practices, promoting collaboration and the transfer of traditional ecological knowledge. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voorheen was bewaringsaktiwiteite meestal gefokus op die vestiging van beskermde areas wat die natuurlike wêreld beveilig en beskerm het van misbruik wat dikwels die gevolg was van die geforseerde verwydering van inheemse gemeenskappe. In Suid-Afrika was die ≠Khomani Boesman groep een van die sodanige groepe wat op ʼn indrukwekkende manier van hulle tuislande uitgesit is. Vandag het die gemeenskap weer toegang gekry tot die land van hulle voorvaders in die indiening van ʼn grond eis wat in 1999 vasgestel is, en wat die gemeenskap grond regte toegeken het in die vorm van ses plase en grond regtelike gebruik binne die sogenoemde Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). Dit het hulle die reg gegee tot die gebruik en bestuur van hulle eiendom wat binne die park val saam met die bewaringsowerhede wat verantwoordelik is vir die Park, Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Parke (SANParks). Die doel van hierdie studie is om ons begrip te verbeter van die gebruik van hulpbronne deur die ≠Khomani Boesman. Met die verkryging van insig oor hulpbron gebruik en hoe die kennis van hierdie gebruik oorgedra en gedeel word, is inligting oor hoe om ʼn beter betrekking en integrering van die gemeenskap in die bestuursprosesse gegenereer. Die studie het die belangrikste plante geïdentifiseer wat tans gebruik word binne die ≠Khomani gemeenskap met die doel om die gebruik van hierdie plante te assesseer. Sosiale netwerkanalise (SNA) is addisioneel gebruik om ondersoek in te stel oor hoe sosiale netwerk struktuur die verspreiding van kennis uitbeeld wat die gemeenskap se vermoë om hulle natuurlike plant hulpbronne effektief te bestuur affekteer. In ʼn etnobotaniese opname, was oor 90 individuele ondervra op die plase wat aan die gemeenskap toegeken was, met die gebruik van semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude. Dit is gevind dat in totaal 59 plant spesies uit 28 families gebruik word. Medisinale plante was meer dikwels aangehaal (60%) met eetbare plante bestaande uit 20%. Data was ook versamel oor sosiale verwantskappe omringende die verkryging, generering en oordra van kennis in die gebruik van plante. Hierdie netwerk van kennis word alles uitgebeeld in geïsoleerde individue op die periferie en ʼn paar individue wat losweg verbonde is tot sentrale strukture. Hierdie studie identifiseer dat die gebruik van wildeplante ʼn belangrike praktyk bly vir die ≠Khomani mense, hoofsaaklik vir medisinale doeleindes. Dit dien as basis inligting van plant hulpbronne wat tans gebruik word deur die gemeenskap en wat by ons begrip gevoeg word oor hoe tradisionele kennis oorgedra word. Die insig wat deur SNA voorsien word beeld die huidige verspreiding van kennis uit, wat deur die gemeenskap gebruik moet word, as ondersteuning van “network weavers” en SANParks om hulle gesamentlike bestuur doelwitte te bereik. “Network weavers” kan potensieel ekologiese onvolhoubare praktyke teenwerk, wat die samewerking en die oordra van tradisionele ekologiese kennis bevorder.

Municipalities as the custodians of the environment in their areas of jurisdiction have the responsibility to care for the environment through their activities. This will ensure that the health and quality of the living of residents is protected and that residents continue to benefit from the environment in the long term. This study focuses on the environmental management activities of South African municipalities by providing a theoretical framework for environmental management, review available environmental management tools and reflect on environmental management activities by municipalities of the Kgalagadi area. Municipalities of the Kgalagadi area were analysed against the various available environmental management tools, municipal health responsibilities and powers and functions. The core finding is that most environmental management tools are developed and implemented in the Kgalagadi area. However a concern is the lack of effective utilisation of by-laws as a tool and the under-performance of the municipal health function by the District Municipality. It is recommended that municipalities should align their environmental activities to the powers and functions of local government and the performance management system of municipalities measure environmental performance as well. / Thesis (M. Environmental Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Thesis (M. Environmental Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Municipalities as the custodians of the environment in their areas of jurisdiction have the responsibility to care for the environment through their activities. This will ensure that the health and quality of the living of residents is protected and that residents continue to benefit from the environment in the long term. This study focuses on the environmental management activities of South African municipalities by providing a theoretical framework for environmental management, review available environmental management tools and reflect on environmental management activities by municipalities of the Kgalagadi area. Municipalities of the Kgalagadi area were analysed against the various available environmental management tools, municipal health responsibilities and powers and functions. The core finding is that most environmental management tools are developed and implemented in the Kgalagadi area. However a concern is the lack of effective utilisation of by-laws as a tool and the under-performance of the municipal health function by the District Municipality. It is recommended that municipalities should align their environmental activities to the powers and functions of local government and the performance management system of municipalities measure environmental performance as well. / Thesis (M. Environmental Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007