Whenever there have been wars, children were a result of intimate relationships between deployed (foreign/ enemy) soldiers and local women ranging from love affairs to systematic sexual violence. These children born of war (CBOW) are a common phenomenon of war, yet their fate has not experienced much attention in research during the last decades (Lee, 2012). At the end of World War II (WWII) and thereafter, maximum 400,000 children were born to German women fathered by soldiers of the four occupying forces (Britain, France, USA, Soviet Union) (Stelzl-Marx & Satjukow, 2015). These are called “children born of occupation” or “occupation children” in research, yet the term is still under debate, since after all, these individuals are not children anymore today. Several archival and case studies from historical and social sciences have been describing the hardship these children had to face, being born “child of the enemy” and “born out of wedlock” into a defeated and contrite former National Socialist society, where losing the war however did not necessarily mean a change in mindset. Their results hint at disorientation regarding the question of belonging, and emotional as well as mental distress in the experiences of many of these children (Glaesmer, Kaiser, Freyberger et al., 2012; Mochmann et al., 2009; Satjukow, 2009, 2011; Stelzl-Marx, 2009). Nevertheless, a psychosocial perspective had been missing so far. When assessing psychosocial consequences of growing up as child in this societal context, a study needs to focus on three main aspects: Identity development, stigmatization/ discrimination, and child maltreatment (Glaesmer, Kaiser, Freyberger et al., 2012). In 2013, the study “Occupation children: identity development, stigma experience, and psychosocial consequences growing up as a ‘German occupation child’” launched and recruited 164 people via press release (App. 8.6) and contact to platforms of occupation children of which 146 were included in the analyses (mean age 63.4, 63.0% women). Since GOC are difficult to reach, their population size is small and can only be estimated; they can be considered a „hidden population“. These populations cannot be investigated by standardized instruments only but need a participative research approach to tailor instruments to their reality (Heckathorn, 1997; Salganik & Heckathorn, 2004). Participative research enhances chances of acceptance and compliance among the target population (Brendel, 2002). Therefore, the applied instrument (App. 8.7) consists of two parts: a self-developed part on experiences specific for this group of CBOW deducted from literature and developed in a participative approach with the help of occupation children themselves as well as experienced researchers in this field. Part two contains standardized psychometric instruments assessing current mental distress and traumatic childhood experiences among others (please refer to publication I for a detailed description of the instruments). This dissertation focused on the specific living and developmental conditions for GOC in post-WWII Germany (change of attachment figures, financial situation, knowledge of biological background etc.) as well as experiences of stigmatization/ discrimination and traumatic experiences during their life and childhood specifically. Furthermore, this work investigated current mental distress and attachment in close adult relationships. The following is a summary for each of the five articles this dissertation is based on: 1. Growing up as an occupation child of World War II in Germany: Rationale and methods of a study on German occupation children A specific instrument was developed in a participative research approach to investigate German occupation children as a hidden population. It consists of a self-developed part assessing specific experiences described for CBOW during childhood and adolescence (e.g. attachment figures and change of attachment figures, knowledge about biological father and his background, housing situation, experiences of stigmatization) and a second part with standardized instruments assessing mental disorders, attachment in close adult relationships, traumatic experiences, and childhood maltreatment. Overall, the developed questionnaire was well accepted by the target group and topics covered were of high relevance. Finally, N=146 subjects with fathers from all four occupation forces were included in the study (48.6% American, 22.6% French, 21.9% Soviet, 4.1% British). The distribution of each subgroup can be ascribed to the sampling method of contacting platforms of occupation children. Concerning their procreation background the majority (75.3%) stated their parents had a positively defined relationship. Only 10 (6.8%) children born out of rape participated. 2. Depression, Somatization, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children Born of Occupation After World War II in Comparison With a General Population The comparison of findings for GOC with a representative birth-cohort-matched sample (BCMS) from the German general population (N=977) showed that GOC report significantly higher prevalence rates of most traumatic experiences, higher one-month prevalence rates of full and partial PTSD, depression and somatization than the control group. Especially high impact traumatic events (e.g. childhood abuse, rape, and physical violence) were more frequent among GOC. Furthermore, GOC reported growing up under difficult conditions (e.g. poverty, single mothers, change of attachment figures in childhood, and stigmatization). These findings show that even decades after these experiences have ended, they suffer from higher rates of depression, somatization and posttraumatic stress as well as comorbid conditions. The results thereby underline the complex and long-term impact of their burdened social, financial and familial conditions on current mental health. 3. Long-term effects on adult attachment in German occupation children born after World War II in comparison with a birth-cohort-matched representative sample of the German general population The linear and binary logistic regression analyses of adult attachment and its association with current depression in GOC (N=146) in comparison to a birth-cohort-matched representative sample (BCMS) of the German population (BCMS; N=786) show that GOC are less comfortable with closeness/ intimacy and report a lowered ability to depend on others in close relationships. This shows in more dismissive and fearful attachment compared to BCMS. In line with existing research, insecure adult attachment is associated with current depression. These results are discussed in relation to the difficult circumstances under which GOC grew up (e.g. single mothers, change of attachment figures in childhood, adverse events, stigmatization) and thus underline the complex and long-term impact of the developmental conditions on attachment and current mental health. 4. German Occupation Children: Experiences of Stigmatization after World War II Experiences of stigmatization and discrimination were a shared truth for GOC. More than half of the sample (54.6%) stated having experienced stigmatization, one-fifth of them „frequently“ or „constant­ly“. Major reasons were father’s origin, physical attributes or illegitimacy at birth. Stigmatization took place in children’s immediate social environment, in public institutions and in their own families, mostly in childhood and adolescence. The majority stated withdrawal and avoidance as coping behaviors. Findings indicate the magnitude of stigmatizing experiences in this subgroup of the German population in frequency of experiences as well as in terms of impact on all levels of social interaction. 5. Childhood maltreatment in children born of occupation after WWII in Germany and its associ­ation with mental disorders Experiences of emotional abuse/ neglect, physical and sexual abuse are significantly higher in GOC compared to the representative birth-cohort-matched sample (BCMS) from the German general population (N=920). All five subtypes of childhood maltreatment (CM) increase the risk of PTSD and somatoform syndrome. Depressive syndromes are associated with emotional abuse/ neglect and physical abuse. GOC were at high risk of CM. Findings underline the complex, long-term impact of developmental conditions and CM on mental disorders even decades later.:Table of contents 1. Background 1.1 Historical background 1.2 Theoretical background 2. Research objectives 3. Methods 3.1 Study design & samples 3.2 Instruments 4. Outline of publications 5. Discussion 5.1 Limitations 5.2 Outlook 6. Summary/ Zusammenfassung 7. References 8. Appendix 8.1 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 8.2 Darstellung des eigenen Beitrags 8.3 Curriculum vitae 8.4 Publikationsverzeichnis 8.5 Danksagung 8.6 Press release 8.7 GOC Questionnaire