The long warming transition from the Last Ice Age into the present Interglacial period, the last deglaciation, holds the key to our understanding of future abrupt climate change. In the last decades, a great effort has been put into deciphering the linkage between freshwater fluxes from melting ice sheets and rapid shifts in global ocean-atmospheric circulation that characterized this puzzling climate period. In particular, the regional expressions of climate change in response to freshwater forcing are still largely unresolved. This projects aims at evaluating the environmental, hydro-climatic and oceanographic response in the Eastern North Atlantic domain to freshwater fluxes from the Scandinavian Ice Sheet during the last deglaciation (~19,000-11,000 years ago). The results presented in this thesis involve an overview of the regional representations of climate change across rapid climatic transitions and provide the groundwork to better understand spatial and temporal propagations of past atmospheric and ocean perturbations. Specifically, this thesis comprises i) a comparison of pollenstratigraphic records from densely 14C dated lake sediment sequences, which provides insight into the regional sensitivity of North European vegetation to freshwater forcing in the Nordic Seas around the onset of the Younger Dryas stadial (~12,900 years ago); ii) a reconstruction of North European hydro-climate, which, together with transient climate simulations, shed light on the mechanisms and regionality of climate shortly prior to the transition into the Younger Dryas stadial; iii) studies of a ~1250-year long glacial varve chronology, which provides an accurate timing for the sudden drainage of proglacial freshwater stored in the former ice-dammed Baltic Ice Lake into the North Atlantic Ocean; iv) a 5000-year long terrestrial-marine reconstruction of Eastern North Atlantic hydro-climate and oceanographic changes that clarifies the hitherto elusive relationship between freshwater forcing and the transient behaviour of the North Atlantic overturning circulation system. The results presented in this thesis provide new important temporal constraints on the events that punctuated the last deglaciation in Northern Europe, and give a clearer understanding of the ocean – atmosphere – ice-sheet feedbacks that were at work in the North Atlantic. This increases our understanding of how the Earth climate system functions in more extreme situations. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: In press. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Sea level regression during the Last Glacial Maximum exposed the Bering Land Bridge, and cut off the connection between the North Pacific and Arctic Ocean, ending the exchange of North Pacific Water through the Bering Strait. Exchange of North Pacific Water comprises a major portion of fresh water input to the Arctic Ocean, and is of vital importance to North Atlantic Deep Water formation, a vital component of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Bering Strait throughflow thus plays an integral role in global climate stability. A suite of four cores was selected, three in the Bering Sea and one in the Chukchi Sea, to bracket the Bering Strait in order to elucidate changes in sediment delivery, productivity and regional oceanography as the Bering Land Bridge flooded and modern ocean circulation was established during the last deglaciation. The arrival of nutrient rich North Pacific Water in the Chukchi Sea is recorded around 8 ka by organic carbon isotope depletion and an increase in total organic carbon and organic nitrogen, reflecting an increasingly marine isotopic signal and increased productivity. In the Bering Sea, the early deglaciation is marked by depleted organic carbon isotopes that indicate increasing terrestrial input, and increased total organic carbon. Principal component analysis of sedimentologic, geochemical and isotopic data clearly captures discrete sediment populations that correspond to key climatic intervals, representing changes in sediment delivery, productivity and circulation during the last deglaciation. In the Bering Sea we observe that deglaciation began in earnest around 18–17 ka, but lack of confidence in our age control does not allow for a precise date. Our results suggest that modern circulation through the Bering Strait, and thus for the Bering and Chukchi Seas, was established ~8 ka. Prior to 8 ka there is an interval of sediment that appears record a possible reversal of flow through the Bering Strait corresponding to the 8.2 ka event.

Afin d’étudier les changements hydrologiques passés du « lac Noir » (dernière phase lacustre de la mer Noire) et l’expression de la Dernière Déglaciation en Europe centrale, des techniques analytiques variées ont été mises en œuvre sur la carotte MD04-2790 : modélisation, développement de méthodes statistiques, géochimie élémentaire et isotopique. La reconstitution de l’évolution des âges réservoir du « lac Noir » au cours des 30 derniers millénaires a permis de mieux comprendre les réponses hydrologiques du bassin aux changements climatiques (variations du niveau du plan d’eau, phases de stratification, possible déstabilisation d’hydrates de gaz). L’âge de la dernière reconnexion du « lac Noir » avec la mer Méditerranée a été révisé à 9 000 ans BP. L’interprétation des isotopes du Nd en termes de provenance des sédiments a permis de mettre en évidence que les pulses d’eaux de fonte arrivant dans le « lac Noir » au cours de l’événement de Heinrich 1 provenaient de la désintégration de la calotte fennoscandinave. Un mécanisme régional d’interactions climatiques entre lacs proglaciaires et atmosphère a été proposé pour expliquer l’organisation temporelle particulière des pulses d’eaux de fonte. Nos résultats renforcent le paradigme de Denton qui suggère que des stades prolongés sont nécessaires au passage du mode climatique glaciaire au mode interglaciaire. / In order to study the past hydrologic changes of the Black Sea “Lake”, various analytical techniques were applied to study the core MD04-2790: modelling, development of statistical approaches, elemental and isotopic geochemistry. The reconstructed reservoir age changes of the Black Sea “Lake” were interpreted in terms of the hydrologic responses of the lake to glacial/deglacial climate changes (water level change, water column stratification, possible chlatrate dissociation). Calendar age of the Black Sea “Lake” last reconnection to global ocean was also revised to 9,000 yr BP. Finally, drastic changes in &#949;Nd values strongly suggest that sediments deposited in response to Deglacial Water Pulses (DWP) during Heinrich Event 1 (HE1) originated from the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet (FIS), providing the first direct evidence that the Black Sea “Lake” recorded the collapse of the FIS. The peculiar temporal organisation of DWPs suggests outbursts of proglacial lakes into Dniepr catchment as well as regional climatic interactions between proglacial lakes and atmosphere. The HE1-timing of the DWPs occurrence would indicate that FIS was involved in the N-Atlantic circulation reduction that shifted Earth climatic machine towards interglacial conditions in accordance with Denton’s paradigm.

O presente trabalho é um estudo de reconstituição paleoambiental da Baixada Litorânea do Mosaico da Juréia-Itatins (MJI) e da região marinnha do Cone do Rio Grande (CRG), talude superior defronte ao Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, inferido a partir da análise de associações de foraminíferos bentônicos, durante os últimos 19.000 anos. Foram também realizadas análises geoquímica da razão Mg/Ca de Globigerinoides ruber (white, stricto sensu), bem como tafonômicas e morfométricas de testas bentônicas, com o intuito de refinar as interpretações paleoambientais, principalmente as obtidas na região do CRG. A Transgressão Santos (~21.227-20.448 a ~5.558-4.558 anos cal A.P.) foi detectada somente no período de 9.400 a 8.385 anos cal A.P. na região costeira do MJI, devido à presença de sedimentos continentais na porção superior do testemunho S03. Durante este intervalo de tempo, as análises microfaunísticas e tafonômicas permiti ram reconhecer quatro fases conspícuas de incursões de águas marinhas (9.400-9.338; 9.072-8.894; 8.656-8.641 e 8.594-8.500 anos cal A.P.) intercaladas por quatro fases de proeminente contribuição continental (9.338-9.072; 8.500-8.385; 8.806-8.672 e 8.625-8.594 anos cal A.P.) na paleolaguna do MJI. Durante as incursões de águas marinhas, observou-se aumento da diversidade de espécies calcárias, com a predominância de Pararotalia cananeiaensis, Ammonia spp. e Elphidium spp. Nos dois períodos de maior aporte continental em que foram encontradas testas de foraminíferos bentônicos, a diversidade diminuiu drasticamente, e houve o concomitante predomínio do gênero Blysmaphaaera. Após 8.385 anos cal A.P. as associações de foraminíferos bentônicos desapareceram dos sedimentos da paleolaguna, que passou a apresentar características cada vez mais continentais. Na região do CRG, as análises microfaunísticas bentônicas e tafonômicas permitiram o reconhecimento de cinco fases com características paleoambientais distintas. A primeira fase (19.000 a 18.600 anos cal A.P.) caracterizou-se por uma maior taxa de sedimentação, e pela presença de testas ricas em sulfeto e monossulfeto de ferro. A segunda (entre 18.600 e 17.000 anos cal A.P.) teve como principal característica o aumento do grau de oxigenação do meio, indicado pela presença de espécies epifaunais típicas de ambientes mais oxigenados, tais como Quinqueloculina spp., Pyrgo spp. e Eponides repandus, e pelo aumento do índice Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index (BFOI). A terceira fase (17.000 a 16.000 anos cal A.P.) se caracterizou pela diminuição da energia de fundo do meio, o que propiciou maior acúmulo de matéria orgânica nos sedimentos e baixos teores de oxigênio no meio bentônico, tal como indicado pelos maiores valores do índice Benthic Foraminifera High Productivity (BFHP). Essas primeiras três fases corresponderam ao período Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1). A quarta fase (16.000 e 14.700 anos cal A.P.) foi configurada pela transição entre o HS1 e a Reversão Fria Antártica (Antarctic Cold Reversal - ACR), e foi marcada por modificações significativas no nível da oxigenação do meio, especialmente em ~15.000 anos cal A.P., e provável aumento da temperatura das águas de fundo do CRG, conforme indicado pela presença de Bulimina marginata, Uvigerina peregrina e Quinqueloculina spp. A quinta e última fase (14.700 e 14.000 anos cal A.P.) correspondeu ao início do ACR, com diminuição do hidrodinamismo e da oxigenação do meio e aumento do acúmulo de matéria orgânica nos sedimentos, como demonstrado pelo menor grau de desgaste das testas e pelos índices BFHP e BFOI. Já a análise geoquímica da razão Mg/Ca em testas de G. ruber indicou que as paleotemperaturas superficiais marinhas (Mg/Ca SST) tenderam a aumentar de 19.000 anos cal A.P. ao Presente. Os valores de paleossalinidades superficiais marinhas (SSS) dessa região inferidas pelos valores de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw, não apresentaram padrão definido de 19.000 a ~8.500 anos cal A.P. A partir dessa idade, elas tiveram leve tendência à diminuição até o Presente. As variações secundárias dos valores de Mg/Ca SST e de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw parecem ter sido influenciadas principalmente pelas alterações da circulação oceânica atlântica e por fenômenos atmosferico-climáticos associados a Última Deglaciação. No Holoceno, estes fatores se tornaram secundários, e os valores de Mg/Ca SST e de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw passaram a ser influenciados pelas variações climatico-atmosféricas do hemisfério sul, especialmente as que se deram na região antártica. Também foram influenciadas por aumento da temperatura global, pluviosidade sobre a América do Sul, oscilações secundárias do paleonível relativo do mar durante a Transgressão Santos, variações da pluma de águas menos salinas do Rio de La Plata e por ocorrência de fenômenos tais como a Oscilação Atlântica Multidecadal e o El -Niño - Oscilação Sul. / This thesis is a study of the paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the Juréia-Itatins Mosaic coastal lowlands (JIM) and the marine region of Rio Grande Cone (CRG), upper slope in front of Rio Grande do Sul State, inferred from analyses of benthic foraminiferal assemblages during the last 19.000 years. Geochemical analyses of Globigerinoides ruber (white, stricto sensu) along with taphonomical and morphometric analyses of benthic tests were also performed in order to refine the paleoenvironmental interpretations, especially those obtained at CRG. The Santos Transgression (~21,227-20,448 to ~5,558-4,558 cal yr B.P.) was detected only during the period from 9,400 to 8,385 cal yr B.P. in the coastal lowlands of JIM, due to the presence of continental sediments in the upper portion of the S03 core. During this time interval the microfaunistic and taphonomical analyses allowed the recognition of four phases of conspicuous marine waters incursions (9,400-9,338; 9,072-8,894; 8,656-8,641 and 8,594-8,500 cal yr B.P.) interspersed by four phases of prominent continental contribution (9,338-9,072; 8,500-8,385; 8,806-8,672 and 8,625-8,594 cal yr B.P.) in the paleolagoon of JIM. During the marine waters incursions, there was an increase of di versity of calcareous species, wit h the predominance of Pararotalia cananeiaensis, Ammonia spp. and Elphidium spp. In the two periods o f higher continental inflow in which benthic foraminiferal tests were found the diversity decreased drastically, and there was a concomitant predominance of Blysmaphaaera genus. After 8,385 cal yr B.P. the benthic foraminiferal assemblages di sappeared of paleolagoon sediments, which began to show increased continental features. In the CRG\'s region, the benthic microfaunistic and taphonomical analyses allowed the recognition of five phases with distinct paleoenvironmental characteristics. The first phase (19,000 to 18,600 cal yr B.P.) was characterized by a higher sedimentation rate, and the presence of tests containing iron sulphide and monossulphide. The second (between 18,600 and 17,000 cal yr B.P.) had as main characteristic the increase of the oxygenation grade of the environment, evidenced by both the presence of epifaunal species typical of more oxygenated environments, such as Quinqueloculina spp., Pyrgo spp. and Eponides repandus, and by the Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index (BFOI). The third phase (17,000 to 16,000 cal yr B.P.) was characterized by the decrease of bottom hydrodynamic energy, which provided higher organic matter accumulation in the sediments and the low levels of oxygen in the benthic environment, as indicated by the higher values of Benthic Foraminifera High Productivity (BFHP) index. These first three phases corresponded to the Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) period. The fourth phase (16,000 to 14,700 cal yr B.P.) was configured by the transition between the HS1 and the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR). It was marked by significant changes in the environment oxygen level especially at ~15,000 cal yr B.P. and by the correspondent increase of bottom water temperature in the CRG, as indicated by the presence of Bulimina marginata, Uvigerina peregrina and Quinqueloculina spp. The fifth and last phase (14,700 to 14,000 cal yr B.P.) corresponded to the beginning of ACR, with decrease of hydrodynamics and oxygenation grade of the environment and increase of organic matter accumulation in the sediments, as demonstrated by both the lower degree of tests wear and by the BFOI and BFHP indexes. The geochemistry analysis of Mg/Ca ratio in G. ruber tests indicated that the paleo-sea surface temperatures (Mg/Ca SST) tended to increase from 19,000 cal yr B.P. to the Present. Meanwhile the paleo-sea surface salinities (SSS) inferred by the values of \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw, did not had a defined pattern from 19.000 to ~8,500 cal yr B.P. Since then they have registered a slight tendency to decrease. The secondary variations of Mg/Ca SST and \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw values appear to have been influenced primarily by the variations of Atlantic Ocean circulation and by the atmospheric-climatic phenomena associated with the Last Deglaciation. In the Holocene however these paleoclimatic factors became secondary, and the Mg/Ca SST and \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw values became influenced by climatic-atmospheric variations of the southern hemisphere, especially those that occurred over the Antarctic region. They were also influenced by the increase in global temperature, the rainfall regimen over South America, the secondary oscillations of the plume of less saline waters from La Plata River, and by the occurrence of phenomena such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and the El-Niño-Southern Oscilation.

O presente trabalho é um estudo de reconstituição paleoambiental da Baixada Litorânea do Mosaico da Juréia-Itatins (MJI) e da região marinnha do Cone do Rio Grande (CRG), talude superior defronte ao Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, inferido a partir da análise de associações de foraminíferos bentônicos, durante os últimos 19.000 anos. Foram também realizadas análises geoquímica da razão Mg/Ca de Globigerinoides ruber (white, stricto sensu), bem como tafonômicas e morfométricas de testas bentônicas, com o intuito de refinar as interpretações paleoambientais, principalmente as obtidas na região do CRG. A Transgressão Santos (~21.227-20.448 a ~5.558-4.558 anos cal A.P.) foi detectada somente no período de 9.400 a 8.385 anos cal A.P. na região costeira do MJI, devido à presença de sedimentos continentais na porção superior do testemunho S03. Durante este intervalo de tempo, as análises microfaunísticas e tafonômicas permiti ram reconhecer quatro fases conspícuas de incursões de águas marinhas (9.400-9.338; 9.072-8.894; 8.656-8.641 e 8.594-8.500 anos cal A.P.) intercaladas por quatro fases de proeminente contribuição continental (9.338-9.072; 8.500-8.385; 8.806-8.672 e 8.625-8.594 anos cal A.P.) na paleolaguna do MJI. Durante as incursões de águas marinhas, observou-se aumento da diversidade de espécies calcárias, com a predominância de Pararotalia cananeiaensis, Ammonia spp. e Elphidium spp. Nos dois períodos de maior aporte continental em que foram encontradas testas de foraminíferos bentônicos, a diversidade diminuiu drasticamente, e houve o concomitante predomínio do gênero Blysmaphaaera. Após 8.385 anos cal A.P. as associações de foraminíferos bentônicos desapareceram dos sedimentos da paleolaguna, que passou a apresentar características cada vez mais continentais. Na região do CRG, as análises microfaunísticas bentônicas e tafonômicas permitiram o reconhecimento de cinco fases com características paleoambientais distintas. A primeira fase (19.000 a 18.600 anos cal A.P.) caracterizou-se por uma maior taxa de sedimentação, e pela presença de testas ricas em sulfeto e monossulfeto de ferro. A segunda (entre 18.600 e 17.000 anos cal A.P.) teve como principal característica o aumento do grau de oxigenação do meio, indicado pela presença de espécies epifaunais típicas de ambientes mais oxigenados, tais como Quinqueloculina spp., Pyrgo spp. e Eponides repandus, e pelo aumento do índice Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index (BFOI). A terceira fase (17.000 a 16.000 anos cal A.P.) se caracterizou pela diminuição da energia de fundo do meio, o que propiciou maior acúmulo de matéria orgânica nos sedimentos e baixos teores de oxigênio no meio bentônico, tal como indicado pelos maiores valores do índice Benthic Foraminifera High Productivity (BFHP). Essas primeiras três fases corresponderam ao período Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1). A quarta fase (16.000 e 14.700 anos cal A.P.) foi configurada pela transição entre o HS1 e a Reversão Fria Antártica (Antarctic Cold Reversal - ACR), e foi marcada por modificações significativas no nível da oxigenação do meio, especialmente em ~15.000 anos cal A.P., e provável aumento da temperatura das águas de fundo do CRG, conforme indicado pela presença de Bulimina marginata, Uvigerina peregrina e Quinqueloculina spp. A quinta e última fase (14.700 e 14.000 anos cal A.P.) correspondeu ao início do ACR, com diminuição do hidrodinamismo e da oxigenação do meio e aumento do acúmulo de matéria orgânica nos sedimentos, como demonstrado pelo menor grau de desgaste das testas e pelos índices BFHP e BFOI. Já a análise geoquímica da razão Mg/Ca em testas de G. ruber indicou que as paleotemperaturas superficiais marinhas (Mg/Ca SST) tenderam a aumentar de 19.000 anos cal A.P. ao Presente. Os valores de paleossalinidades superficiais marinhas (SSS) dessa região inferidas pelos valores de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw, não apresentaram padrão definido de 19.000 a ~8.500 anos cal A.P. A partir dessa idade, elas tiveram leve tendência à diminuição até o Presente. As variações secundárias dos valores de Mg/Ca SST e de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw parecem ter sido influenciadas principalmente pelas alterações da circulação oceânica atlântica e por fenômenos atmosferico-climáticos associados a Última Deglaciação. No Holoceno, estes fatores se tornaram secundários, e os valores de Mg/Ca SST e de \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw passaram a ser influenciados pelas variações climatico-atmosféricas do hemisfério sul, especialmente as que se deram na região antártica. Também foram influenciadas por aumento da temperatura global, pluviosidade sobre a América do Sul, oscilações secundárias do paleonível relativo do mar durante a Transgressão Santos, variações da pluma de águas menos salinas do Rio de La Plata e por ocorrência de fenômenos tais como a Oscilação Atlântica Multidecadal e o El -Niño - Oscilação Sul. / This thesis is a study of the paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the Juréia-Itatins Mosaic coastal lowlands (JIM) and the marine region of Rio Grande Cone (CRG), upper slope in front of Rio Grande do Sul State, inferred from analyses of benthic foraminiferal assemblages during the last 19.000 years. Geochemical analyses of Globigerinoides ruber (white, stricto sensu) along with taphonomical and morphometric analyses of benthic tests were also performed in order to refine the paleoenvironmental interpretations, especially those obtained at CRG. The Santos Transgression (~21,227-20,448 to ~5,558-4,558 cal yr B.P.) was detected only during the period from 9,400 to 8,385 cal yr B.P. in the coastal lowlands of JIM, due to the presence of continental sediments in the upper portion of the S03 core. During this time interval the microfaunistic and taphonomical analyses allowed the recognition of four phases of conspicuous marine waters incursions (9,400-9,338; 9,072-8,894; 8,656-8,641 and 8,594-8,500 cal yr B.P.) interspersed by four phases of prominent continental contribution (9,338-9,072; 8,500-8,385; 8,806-8,672 and 8,625-8,594 cal yr B.P.) in the paleolagoon of JIM. During the marine waters incursions, there was an increase of di versity of calcareous species, wit h the predominance of Pararotalia cananeiaensis, Ammonia spp. and Elphidium spp. In the two periods o f higher continental inflow in which benthic foraminiferal tests were found the diversity decreased drastically, and there was a concomitant predominance of Blysmaphaaera genus. After 8,385 cal yr B.P. the benthic foraminiferal assemblages di sappeared of paleolagoon sediments, which began to show increased continental features. In the CRG\'s region, the benthic microfaunistic and taphonomical analyses allowed the recognition of five phases with distinct paleoenvironmental characteristics. The first phase (19,000 to 18,600 cal yr B.P.) was characterized by a higher sedimentation rate, and the presence of tests containing iron sulphide and monossulphide. The second (between 18,600 and 17,000 cal yr B.P.) had as main characteristic the increase of the oxygenation grade of the environment, evidenced by both the presence of epifaunal species typical of more oxygenated environments, such as Quinqueloculina spp., Pyrgo spp. and Eponides repandus, and by the Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Index (BFOI). The third phase (17,000 to 16,000 cal yr B.P.) was characterized by the decrease of bottom hydrodynamic energy, which provided higher organic matter accumulation in the sediments and the low levels of oxygen in the benthic environment, as indicated by the higher values of Benthic Foraminifera High Productivity (BFHP) index. These first three phases corresponded to the Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) period. The fourth phase (16,000 to 14,700 cal yr B.P.) was configured by the transition between the HS1 and the Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR). It was marked by significant changes in the environment oxygen level especially at ~15,000 cal yr B.P. and by the correspondent increase of bottom water temperature in the CRG, as indicated by the presence of Bulimina marginata, Uvigerina peregrina and Quinqueloculina spp. The fifth and last phase (14,700 to 14,000 cal yr B.P.) corresponded to the beginning of ACR, with decrease of hydrodynamics and oxygenation grade of the environment and increase of organic matter accumulation in the sediments, as demonstrated by both the lower degree of tests wear and by the BFOI and BFHP indexes. The geochemistry analysis of Mg/Ca ratio in G. ruber tests indicated that the paleo-sea surface temperatures (Mg/Ca SST) tended to increase from 19,000 cal yr B.P. to the Present. Meanwhile the paleo-sea surface salinities (SSS) inferred by the values of \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw, did not had a defined pattern from 19.000 to ~8,500 cal yr B.P. Since then they have registered a slight tendency to decrease. The secondary variations of Mg/Ca SST and \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw values appear to have been influenced primarily by the variations of Atlantic Ocean circulation and by the atmospheric-climatic phenomena associated with the Last Deglaciation. In the Holocene however these paleoclimatic factors became secondary, and the Mg/Ca SST and \"delta\' POT.18\' Oivc-sw values became influenced by climatic-atmospheric variations of the southern hemisphere, especially those that occurred over the Antarctic region. They were also influenced by the increase in global temperature, the rainfall regimen over South America, the secondary oscillations of the plume of less saline waters from La Plata River, and by the occurrence of phenomena such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation and the El-Niño-Southern Oscilation.