This thesis explored the feasibility of training cattle to eliminate in specific areas of a barn and investigated cattle’s ability to generalise knowledge between different locations. In Chapter 2, all incidences of urination and defecation were recorded by group-housed female Holstein calves across 144 h. There were substantial differences between individual calves in the mean daily frequency. Calves urinated and defecated most frequently during daylight hours when they are more active and the location of voiding was likely related to the amount of time areas were occupied. In Chapter 3, calves were trained to urinate in a specific location via classical or operant conditioning. Classically conditioned calves were held in a stall for a set time and given no punishment or reinforcement upon urination, whereas calves in the operant treatment were immediately rewarded for urination in the stall. Classically conditioned calves did not urinate more than controls. Calves trained using operant conditioning had a higher frequency of urinations in the stall than their controls but did not seem to generalise this association; failing to urinate more than controls when tested again, 5 months later, in a new location (Chapter 4). The use of visual cues may be an effective way of helping cattle to generalise previously learned associations to a new location or context. Two experiments were conducted (Chapter 5) to investigate whether prior exposure to colour cues improves calves’ performance in a Y maze colour discrimination task. In Experiment 1, either both side and colour or colour alone predicted the location of milk reward in a Y maze. Our results suggest that calves overlook colour in the presence of more salient cues, such as location. In the second experiment, calves were first classical conditioned to associate coloured signs with presence of absence of milk (colours were randomised for controls) before testing in a Y maze discrimination task. Nine out of ten classically conditioned calves, but no control calves, achieved the learning criteria. Classical conditioning can be used to rapidly train cattle to follow colour cues and generalise these associations to new contexts or locations.

Rates of population growth in developing country cities are straining the capacity of sanitation service providers. In spite of widespread sector recognition of the need to adopt low-cost, people centred approaches, 80 per cent of investments in the water and sanitation sector continue to be allocated to high cost technologies for urban elites. Household level, on-plot sanitation systems potentially offer a solution to the sanitary needs of the urban poor. Nevertheless, commonly held assumptions amongst sector professionals that lower cost, on-plot systems are inappropriate and unacceptable in urban communities impede-their wider application. There is little empirical evidence to justify this position. The scope of this work examines the technical appropriateness and user acceptability of on-plot sanitation options. The thesis contributes to an improved understanding of the context in which on-plot systems operate, what factors constrain their application, and what issues need consideration when deciding on sanitary options in low-income communities. The research adopted a mix of methodological techniques to improve the reliability and validity of findings, with both quantitative and qualitative methods applied during fieldwork. Findings from Ghana, Mozambique and India are included in the thesis in order to permit sampling of key latrine types used internationally. The thesis concludes that user based perceptions of the performance and acceptability of on-plot systems varies markedly to those of sector professionals, particularly in relation to plot size, satisfaction levels and reasons for absence of household latrine. Furthermore, user based criteria of performance are developed for consideration practitioners when narrowing decision making on sanitary options. The implications of the study highlight the need for integration of user concerns into strategic planning for sanitation, more effective stimulation and negotiation of demand for sanitation systems and challenges for agencies in adopting a user oriented approach. The recommendations from the thesis include practitioner focused policy changes that affect project planning and support systems for user education. Potential areas of further research interest include ranking user perceptions, an holistic understanding of excreta management processes and institutional constraints affecting user-service provider consultations.

At the end of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) period in 2015, 2.3 billion people, 31% of the global population, still did not have access to even basic sanitation services. Of these people, 892 million still practice open defecation, and 856 million people use unimproved facilities such as pit latrines without a slab or platform or hanging latrines or bucket latrines (JMP 2017). Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.2 now aims to achieve adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and sets the ambitious target of eradicating open defecation by 2030. While the number of people open defecating was reduced from 1229 million to 892 million between 2000 and 2015, that pace must accelerate to be achieved (JMP, 2017). In Panama, it is estimated that countrywide sanitation coverage is 71%, and rural coverage 54% (WHO/UNICEF, 2013). Even so, in indigenous areas like the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé, only 25% of the population has adequate access to basic sanitation (ANAM, 2006). This research builds upon the research presented in (Hurtado, 2005, Kaiser, 2006, Mehl, 2008, and Wilbur, 2014). These theses researched double vault urine diverting (DVUD) latrines, or composting latrines, in indigenous communities in the province of Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé in Panama. Hurtado, Kaiser, and Mehl researched the design, construction, and pathogen destruction capabilities of composting latrines. Wilbur studied how human attitudes and perceptions serve as incentives or barriers to composting latrine use. In this research surveys, interviews, and observations were recorded in 6 indigenous Ngäbe communities in Bocas del Toro and the Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé. The study quantifies usage of ventilated improved pit (VIP) and basic pit latrines in these communities, assesses positive and negative perceptions of composting latrines, and determines perceptions of feces and the reuse of composted human excrement. The results reveal that of n=103 latrines 88.3% were completed and in use, but only 35.2% were properly covered. To promote proper usage of latrines, continued education and trainings need to be carried out in these communities. Respondents were also favorable to the use of composting latrines, with 61.2% of respondents saying they would be interested in building a composting latrine for their households. The main perceived benefit of composting latrines is the compost, and the most identified barrier to use was lack of prior experience. Other main barriers included user disgust and the amount of work it takes to own and operate the latrine. There were more identified incentives (12) than barriers (11) to composting latrine adoption. Respondents also reported they would react more favorably to their neighbor implementing the technology and using compost than their neighbor would react should the respondent do the same thing. These results indicate the importance of pilot projects in communities, allowing people to see the benefits of the technology and how it works before implementing a larger scale project. These projects would also reduce the stigma associated with being a first adopter. Statistical analysis revealed that the demographics of community, sanitation classification, gender, and primary occupation were significantly linked to survey statements used to measure perceptions on composting latrine use and the use of composted human excrement as a fertilizer. Age, gender, and household size were not found to have a statistically significant link to user perceptions on the same survey statements. Logistic regression analysis was then performed using SPSS statistical analysis software (version 24). The results of this research indicate the importance of setting up follow up trainings as many respondents had forgotten how to properly maintain their latrines. It also suggests the setup of pilot projects for composting latrines, as many respondents were favorable to the technology but did not want to try to own and operate a composting latrine without seeing a successful composting latrine first.

Maior mamífero terrestre neotropical, a anta (Tapirus terrestris) possui hábitos solitários. É classificada como herbívora-frugívora, ingerindo grande quantidade de frutos com sementes de diversas espécies. Potencialmente, a anta é considerada um dispersor de sementes. Nesse trabalho, estudamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas por antas e sua efetividade na dispersão de sementes. No primeiro capítulo, abordamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas, que foi realizado através de marcadores plásticos adicionados no alimento. No segundo capítulo avaliamos a efetividade de dispersão de sementes, através dos locais de deposição de fezes e o potencial germinativo de duas espécies que compõe a sua dieta: Psidium guajava e Syagrus romanzoffiana. O estudo foi realizado no Centro de Visitantes do Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro, em Santa Catarina, que compreende uma área de 160 ha. Lá seis indivíduos de T. terrestris vivem em regime de cativeiro extensivo com alimentação suplementar, o que permite a realização de estudos com disponibilidade de habitat e densidade controladas. Observamos que 78% das fezes estavam agrupadas em latrinas e 22% isoladas. Oito unidades fecais (10%) continham marcadores, desde o primeiro até 18 dias após a ingestão. Em uma latrina evidenciamos o uso repetido pelo mesmo indivíduo. Não é possível afirmar se as latrinas são de uso individual ou coletivo, porém a taxa de defecação que encontramos em latrinas é superior a de um único indivíduo. Os locais de defecação estão associados à altura do dossel, refletindo a seleção de T. terrestris pela vegetação arbórea. As taxas médias de germinação de sementes de P. guajava que passaram pelo trato digestivo das antas não foram diferentes (p>0,41) das sementes despolpadas. Já a taxa de germinação das sementes de Syagrus romanzoffiana, fruto importante na dieta de antas, foi maior (p=0,05) quando ingeridas pelos animais, pois esses selecionam frutos sadios. Os resultados demonstram que T. terrestris é eficiente na dispersão de sementes, tanto por depositar suas fezes em locais seguros para a germinação, como por apresentar efeito neutro ou positivo na germinação de espécies após a passagem pelo trato digestivo. / Largest neotropical terrestrial mammal, the tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is a solitary animal. Regarding its food-habit type is classified as frugivore-herbivore, thus ingesting great amount of seedy fruits of diverse species. The tapir is considered to be a seed dispersor. In the present work, aspects related to tapir’s latrine behavior and its effectiveness on seed dispersal were studied. In the first chapter, tapir’s latrine behavior was studied through plastic markers added in the food. In the second chapter the aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of seed dispersal by tapirs, through the places of feces’ deposition and the germination potential of two species composing its diet: Psidium guajava and Syagrus romanzoffiana. The study was carried out in the Visitors Center of Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, in Santa Catarina state, a 160 ha area. There, six T. terrestris individuals live in extensive captivity regime with supplemental feeding, allowing the development of studies with controlled habitat availability and density. We observed that 78% of excrements were grouped in latrines and 22% were isolated. Eight fecal units (10%) were found with markers one to 18 days after marker’s ingestion. In a latrine we found evidence of repeated use by the same individual. Although it is not possible to state whether latrines are of individual or collective use, the defecation rate found is bigger of that of a single individual. The defecation places are associates with higher canopy, reflecting the T. terrestris election for forest vegetation. The germination rate of P. guajava seeds passing through the digestive tract of tapirs weren’t different (p>0,41) from those with pulp manually extracted. On the other hand, germination rate of Syagrus romanzoffiana, an important fruit on tapirs’ diet, was greater (p=0,05) when ingested by the animals, because they select healthy fruits. The results demonstrate tapir to be efficient in seed dispersal, not only for deposing their excrements in safe places for seed germination, as for presenting neutral or positive effect in the germination of seeds after passing their digestive tract.

Maior mamífero terrestre neotropical, a anta (Tapirus terrestris) possui hábitos solitários. É classificada como herbívora-frugívora, ingerindo grande quantidade de frutos com sementes de diversas espécies. Potencialmente, a anta é considerada um dispersor de sementes. Nesse trabalho, estudamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas por antas e sua efetividade na dispersão de sementes. No primeiro capítulo, abordamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas, que foi realizado através de marcadores plásticos adicionados no alimento. No segundo capítulo avaliamos a efetividade de dispersão de sementes, através dos locais de deposição de fezes e o potencial germinativo de duas espécies que compõe a sua dieta: Psidium guajava e Syagrus romanzoffiana. O estudo foi realizado no Centro de Visitantes do Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro, em Santa Catarina, que compreende uma área de 160 ha. Lá seis indivíduos de T. terrestris vivem em regime de cativeiro extensivo com alimentação suplementar, o que permite a realização de estudos com disponibilidade de habitat e densidade controladas. Observamos que 78% das fezes estavam agrupadas em latrinas e 22% isoladas. Oito unidades fecais (10%) continham marcadores, desde o primeiro até 18 dias após a ingestão. Em uma latrina evidenciamos o uso repetido pelo mesmo indivíduo. Não é possível afirmar se as latrinas são de uso individual ou coletivo, porém a taxa de defecação que encontramos em latrinas é superior a de um único indivíduo. Os locais de defecação estão associados à altura do dossel, refletindo a seleção de T. terrestris pela vegetação arbórea. As taxas médias de germinação de sementes de P. guajava que passaram pelo trato digestivo das antas não foram diferentes (p>0,41) das sementes despolpadas. Já a taxa de germinação das sementes de Syagrus romanzoffiana, fruto importante na dieta de antas, foi maior (p=0,05) quando ingeridas pelos animais, pois esses selecionam frutos sadios. Os resultados demonstram que T. terrestris é eficiente na dispersão de sementes, tanto por depositar suas fezes em locais seguros para a germinação, como por apresentar efeito neutro ou positivo na germinação de espécies após a passagem pelo trato digestivo. / Largest neotropical terrestrial mammal, the tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is a solitary animal. Regarding its food-habit type is classified as frugivore-herbivore, thus ingesting great amount of seedy fruits of diverse species. The tapir is considered to be a seed dispersor. In the present work, aspects related to tapir’s latrine behavior and its effectiveness on seed dispersal were studied. In the first chapter, tapir’s latrine behavior was studied through plastic markers added in the food. In the second chapter the aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of seed dispersal by tapirs, through the places of feces’ deposition and the germination potential of two species composing its diet: Psidium guajava and Syagrus romanzoffiana. The study was carried out in the Visitors Center of Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, in Santa Catarina state, a 160 ha area. There, six T. terrestris individuals live in extensive captivity regime with supplemental feeding, allowing the development of studies with controlled habitat availability and density. We observed that 78% of excrements were grouped in latrines and 22% were isolated. Eight fecal units (10%) were found with markers one to 18 days after marker’s ingestion. In a latrine we found evidence of repeated use by the same individual. Although it is not possible to state whether latrines are of individual or collective use, the defecation rate found is bigger of that of a single individual. The defecation places are associates with higher canopy, reflecting the T. terrestris election for forest vegetation. The germination rate of P. guajava seeds passing through the digestive tract of tapirs weren’t different (p>0,41) from those with pulp manually extracted. On the other hand, germination rate of Syagrus romanzoffiana, an important fruit on tapirs’ diet, was greater (p=0,05) when ingested by the animals, because they select healthy fruits. The results demonstrate tapir to be efficient in seed dispersal, not only for deposing their excrements in safe places for seed germination, as for presenting neutral or positive effect in the germination of seeds after passing their digestive tract.

Maior mamífero terrestre neotropical, a anta (Tapirus terrestris) possui hábitos solitários. É classificada como herbívora-frugívora, ingerindo grande quantidade de frutos com sementes de diversas espécies. Potencialmente, a anta é considerada um dispersor de sementes. Nesse trabalho, estudamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas por antas e sua efetividade na dispersão de sementes. No primeiro capítulo, abordamos aspectos comportamentais da formação de latrinas, que foi realizado através de marcadores plásticos adicionados no alimento. No segundo capítulo avaliamos a efetividade de dispersão de sementes, através dos locais de deposição de fezes e o potencial germinativo de duas espécies que compõe a sua dieta: Psidium guajava e Syagrus romanzoffiana. O estudo foi realizado no Centro de Visitantes do Parque Estadual da Serra do Tabuleiro, em Santa Catarina, que compreende uma área de 160 ha. Lá seis indivíduos de T. terrestris vivem em regime de cativeiro extensivo com alimentação suplementar, o que permite a realização de estudos com disponibilidade de habitat e densidade controladas. Observamos que 78% das fezes estavam agrupadas em latrinas e 22% isoladas. Oito unidades fecais (10%) continham marcadores, desde o primeiro até 18 dias após a ingestão. Em uma latrina evidenciamos o uso repetido pelo mesmo indivíduo. Não é possível afirmar se as latrinas são de uso individual ou coletivo, porém a taxa de defecação que encontramos em latrinas é superior a de um único indivíduo. Os locais de defecação estão associados à altura do dossel, refletindo a seleção de T. terrestris pela vegetação arbórea. As taxas médias de germinação de sementes de P. guajava que passaram pelo trato digestivo das antas não foram diferentes (p>0,41) das sementes despolpadas. Já a taxa de germinação das sementes de Syagrus romanzoffiana, fruto importante na dieta de antas, foi maior (p=0,05) quando ingeridas pelos animais, pois esses selecionam frutos sadios. Os resultados demonstram que T. terrestris é eficiente na dispersão de sementes, tanto por depositar suas fezes em locais seguros para a germinação, como por apresentar efeito neutro ou positivo na germinação de espécies após a passagem pelo trato digestivo. / Largest neotropical terrestrial mammal, the tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is a solitary animal. Regarding its food-habit type is classified as frugivore-herbivore, thus ingesting great amount of seedy fruits of diverse species. The tapir is considered to be a seed dispersor. In the present work, aspects related to tapir’s latrine behavior and its effectiveness on seed dispersal were studied. In the first chapter, tapir’s latrine behavior was studied through plastic markers added in the food. In the second chapter the aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of seed dispersal by tapirs, through the places of feces’ deposition and the germination potential of two species composing its diet: Psidium guajava and Syagrus romanzoffiana. The study was carried out in the Visitors Center of Serra do Tabuleiro State Park, in Santa Catarina state, a 160 ha area. There, six T. terrestris individuals live in extensive captivity regime with supplemental feeding, allowing the development of studies with controlled habitat availability and density. We observed that 78% of excrements were grouped in latrines and 22% were isolated. Eight fecal units (10%) were found with markers one to 18 days after marker’s ingestion. In a latrine we found evidence of repeated use by the same individual. Although it is not possible to state whether latrines are of individual or collective use, the defecation rate found is bigger of that of a single individual. The defecation places are associates with higher canopy, reflecting the T. terrestris election for forest vegetation. The germination rate of P. guajava seeds passing through the digestive tract of tapirs weren’t different (p>0,41) from those with pulp manually extracted. On the other hand, germination rate of Syagrus romanzoffiana, an important fruit on tapirs’ diet, was greater (p=0,05) when ingested by the animals, because they select healthy fruits. The results demonstrate tapir to be efficient in seed dispersal, not only for deposing their excrements in safe places for seed germination, as for presenting neutral or positive effect in the germination of seeds after passing their digestive tract.

A urina é importante na comunicação olfativa de mamíferos, especialmente em roedores: apresenta baixo custo e contém metabólitos potencialmente informativos. Possibilita que o receptor avalie características do emissor (p. ex. espécie, sexo, idade, status de dominância e de saúde, receptividade sexual e o tempo da emissão) a partir da urina encontrada. O balanço hídrico, no entanto, pode ser desvantajoso com o uso da urina na marcação por animais de ambientes xéricos e quentes, já que existe um tradeoff entre o volume de água acessível/ingerido e o emitido na micção/marcação, com pressão seletiva a favor da economia hídrica. Nestes casos pode ocorrer redução na emissão de volume com consequente limitação do uso da marcação por urina. Trinomys yonenagae (Rocha, 1995) (Rodentia, Echimyidae) é altamente afiliativa, endêmica da Caatinga, e pertencente a um gênero de ancestral silvícola, cuja maioria das espécies apresenta fidelidade a ambientes florestados. Produz urina de média osmolaridade e de volume semelhante ao de espécies silvícolas do gênero, embora viva em um paleodeserto de temperatura elevada. Nesse contexto hipotetizamos que T. yonenagae faz uso de marcação por urina, uma estratégia importante para roedores sociais, explorando favoravelmente a restrição filogenética (produção de urina de média osmolaridade) imposta por sua ancestralidade. O padrão de deposição de urina e de fezes de T. yonenagae (n=10) e da espécie-irmã, Trinomys setosus (n=10), de ambiente florestado, foi visualizado sob luz ultravioleta (UV), em sessões individuais (24h), em gaiolas-padrão (40x33x16cm), forradas com papel de filtro. O mesmo procedimento foi usado nas investigações posteriores - a quantificação do número de fezes e das marcas de urinas, com estimativas do volume de marcação (VUt=L total/sessão e L/marca) - em T. yonenagae pré-pubertal (32 a 76d, n=10) e em adultos (um a 11 anos, n=21), de ambos os sexos, em sessões (10min) individuais e em contexto social. Nesse caso os rabos-de-facho adultos foram pareados em compartimentos adjacentes (caixa de 40x30x26cm), com um coespecífico de mesmo sexo, conhecido e desconhecido, e de sexo oposto, desconhecido. Qualitativamente as espécies-irmãs apresentam padrão de disposição de urina semelhantes, provavelmente herdados do ancestral silvícola comum. Há depósitos de dois tipos: marcas grandes, nos cantos da gaiola, e marcas pequenas, distribuídas na área central. Em T. yonenagae, as marcas grandes (VUt=3,00-750,00L, 6,67±4,30% do volume urinário diário), correlacionam-se significativamente (Pearson=0,41; sig.<0,00) com a deposição de fezes, sugerindo deposição de latrina; o VUt das marcas pequenas é de 0,01 a 0,05L. O número de marcas pequenas mais elevado, entre os sujeitos que urinaram, foi de quando pareadas com conhecidas (ANOVA um fator, F=3,70 sig.<0,00), sugerindo coesão social em , e associado a um pequeno investimento hídrico. Observou-se também depósitos de secreções da Glândula Harderiana (GH), que não se correlacionaram com nenhuma das variáveis analisadas. Não ocorreram diferenças estatisticamente significantes nas demais comparações feitas. Em condição solitária, 80% dos indivíduos adultos marcaram (latência <5min), enquanto que o grupo de 26-41d apenas dois sujeitos marcaram. O VUt correlacionouse com a idade positivamente (Pearson=0,64; sig.=0,05), entre os indivíduos jovens, e negativamente entre os adultos (Pearson=-0,39; sig.<0,00), o que sugere que a marcação por urina possa ser hormônio-dependente, como ocorre em outras espécies de roedores. A limitação ao acesso à água no ambiente natural dos rabos-de-facho parece não ter se sobreposto aos fatores de ancestralidade e comunicação social na modulação do comportamento de marcação por urina em T. yonenagae, especialmente para fêmeas que ocupam papel diferenciado na hierarquia social do grupo. O trabalho também salienta a ausência de hierarquia linear nos rabos-de-facho, como anteriormente relatado, e evidencia a presença de atividade da GH, abrindo nova linha de estudos fisiológicos e comportamentais dessa glândula em ratos-de-espinho / Urine is important in olfactive communication in mammals, especially in rodents: its presents low costs and had potentially informatives metabolites. The urine enables the sender to transmit informations about itself (p. ex. species, sex, age, dominance and health status, sexual receptivity, and time of deposit). The water balance, however, can be disadvantageous with the use of urine marking in xeric and hot environments, because there is a trade-off between the amount of water available/ingested and delivered in urination/marking, with pressure selective in favor of the water economy. In these cases there may be a reduction in emission of the volume with consequent limitation of the use of the urine in marking. Trinomys yonenagae (Rocha, 1995) (Rodentia, Echimyidae) is highly affiliative, endemic in the Caatinga, and belongs to a genus of forestry ancestral, which most of species have congruence with forested environments. The rabo-de-facho produces urine with medium osmolarity and volume similar to that of forestry species in the genus, although lives in a high temperature paleodesert. In this context we hypothesized that T. yonenagae marks with urine, an important strategy for social rodents, and explore favorably the phylogenetic constraint (production of medium osmolarity urine) imposed by their ancestral. The pattern of urine and feces deposition of T. yonenagae (n=10) and of the sister-species, Trinomys setosus (n=10), of forested environment, was visualized under ultraviolet light (UV) in individual sessions (24h) in house-cages (40x33x16cm), with the floor covered with filter paper. The same procedure was used in further investigations quantification of the number of feces and of the urine marks, with estimation of the urine volume (VUt = L total/session and L/mark) in pre-puebertal (32 to 76d, n = 10) and adults (one to 11 years, n = 21) T. yonenagae, of both sexes, in 10min sessions under individual and social context. The adults in social context was pared, in an adjacent compartments (of 40x30x26cm box), with a same-sex conspecific, known and unknown, and opposite, sex unknown. Qualitatively, both species shows similar patterns of urine deposition, probably inherited from the forestry ancestral. There are kinds of deposits: larger ones, deposited in the corners of the cage, and small ones, distributed in the central area. In T. yonenagae, the larger marks (VUt = 3,00-750,00L, 6.67 ± 4.30% of the daily urine volume) are significantly correlated (Pearson = 0.41, sig <0.00. ) with the number of feces pellets, suggesting latrine deposition; the VUt of small marks is from 0.01 to 0,05L. The higher number of small marks among subjects who urinated was in paired with known situation (one-way ANOVA, F = 3.70; sig. <0.00), suggesting social cohesion in , and associated with a small water investment. It is also noted deposits of Harderian gland (GH) secretions, which were not correlated with any of the variables. There were no statistically significant differences in the other comparisons. In solitary condition, 80% of adults marked (latency <5min), while only two subjects in the 26-41d group marked. The VUt correlated positively with age (Pearson = 0.64;. sig = 0.05) among young individuals, and negatively among adults (Pearson = -0.39;. sig <0.00). This suggests urine-marking in T. yonenagae as a hormone-dependent behavior, like in other rodent species. The limited access to water in the natural environment of rabo-de-facho seems to have not overlapped the ancestry factors and social communication in the modulation of urine for marking behavior, especially for females occupying distinct role in the social hierarchy the group. The work also highlights the absence of linear hierarchy in rabo-de-facho, as previously reported, and shows the presence of GH activity, opening new line of physiological and behavioral studies of this gland in spiny-rats

Access to appropriate sanitation facilities as well as access to clean drinking water are considered fundamental human rights (Carr, 2001; Bjorklund & Sjodin, 2010), yet roughly 2.5 billion people on the planet lack access to an improved form of sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). Additionally, many entities responsible for emergency excreta management and sanitation management design guidelines, specifically solids accumulation rates in latrine pits, use rates that are 30-60 years old and may be established from dated knowledge on diet and lifestyle trends (Franceys et al., 1992; Harvey et al., 2002; Harvey, 2007). Using solids accumulation rates that are dated as well as non-local can lead to under design of latrine pits (latrine pits fill faster than expected and designed) or over design of latrine pits (resources and materials are over used in construction and design). Previous research showed that solids accumulation rates in pit latrines ranged from 18 L/person/year to 70 L/person/year though no accumulation rates have been reported for schools. The reported differences in solids accumulation rates were found to depend largely on local user rates and behaviors, the amount of material added to the latrine (both organic and inorganic matter), and the porosity of the soil surrounding the pit. Wood (2013) suggested that solid waste could compose 10-40% of waste accumulated in a pit. Furthermore, fecal generation rates of individuals were also found to differ by country, region and individual (Franceys et al., 1992). An assessment of several methods for measuring accumulation rates was also performed. It was determined that the laser distance meter technique, as well as the use of a graduated metal rod were the best two ways to determine slab to pit content depths in rural communities. Compared to other methods, such as the stereographic imaging technique, and the automated laser scanner technique, the laser distance meter technique and the use of a graduated rod require less expertise and do not require camera and computer resources. This study also developed a method to assess solids accumulation rates of latrines at three rural schools in Saclepea City, Nimba County, Liberia. Depth measurements were taken from the latrine slab to the surface of the pit contents from early May 2014 until mid-June 2014. The accumulation rates were found to be extremely similar for each latrine for all measurements taken, with differences in depth of only 1-3 cm observed over the six-week measurement period. Little research was identified on the effects of feminine waste on solids accumulation rates in latrines and no literature was found concerning the effects of feminine excretions on the degradation of pit contents. More research is thus needed to assess the possible effects the addition of menstrual blood and menstrual excretions can have on degradation rates as well as the lifespan of viruses and other infectious agents in pit contents and the surrounding soil. This is particularly important with the presence of contaminated wastes from victims of Ebola Virus Disease being disposed of in latrines and other sanitation infrastructure in rural areas of West Africa.

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag media were studied through a series of laboratory, modeling and field studies as a potential treatment material for use in on site wastewater disposal systems. Microsphere enumeration methodology was examined in a factorial experiment to evaluate the minimum density and minimum number of microspheres that should be counted to ensure accurate and precise estimations of concentration. The results suggest that to minimize variability at least 350 microspheres should be counted and a microsphere density of 25-40 microspheres field-1 is necessary. A review of existing methodologies for high-titer bacteriophage production was conducted and an amalgamation of existing methodologies was chosen that reliably achieves elevated concentration and ensures a purified suspension. A combination of batch and column studies was conducted to evaluate the removal of the bacteriophage, PRD-1, and virus-sized fluorescent microspheres by BOF media, and to delineate the relative contributions of the two principle attenuation processes, inactivation and attachment. In the batch studies, substantial removal of PRD-1 does not occur in the pH 7.6 and 9.5 suspensions, but at pH 11.4, removal of the virus was 2.1 log C/C0 day-1 for the first two days, followed by 0.124 log C/C0 day-1 over the subsequent 10 days. Two column studies were conducted after 60 and 300 days of saturation with artificial groundwater at a flow rate of 1 pore volume day-1 using two BOF mixtures. After 300 days of column saturation, microsphere concentrations approached input levels, indicating a removal of 0.1-0.2 log C/C0 and suggesting attachment processes were negligible. PRD-1 removal was more pronounced (1.0-1.5 log C/C0). The reduction of PRD-1 is likely the result of a combination of virus inactivation at elevated pH (10.6-11.4), and attachment processes. Geochemical factors controlling microsphere attachment were compared between the two sets of experiments after 60 and 300 days of column saturation. Differences in attachment efficiency may be due to higher influent DOC concentration in the second experiment, conversion of amorphous iron phases to more crystalline forms over time, reductive dissolution of preferable attachment sites on iron phases, or precipitation of calcite. Hydrus-1D, a one-dimensional numerical model, was used to quantify transport processes, inactivation and attachment/detachment, occurring in the column experiments by model inversion. Fitted microsphere breakthrough closely matched observed data, whereas PRD-1 breakthrough with realistic parameter values does not closely match the peaked nature of the observed curves. The model achieved improved fits for microsphere and PRD-1 breakthrough when both strongly- and weakly-binding sites are represented. A unique set of parameter estimates could not be determined because of overparameterization of the inverse modeling for the experimental systems. An alternative latrine incorporating BOF slag media was constructed in a periurban community located near São Paulo, Brazil. Pathogen indicator removal is approximately 4-5 orders of magnitude in less than one meter of vertical transport through the BOF slag media. In a control latrine, constructed with similar hydraulic characteristics and inert materials, comparable reductions in pathogenic indicators were observed over three meters of vertical transport.

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag media were studied through a series of laboratory, modeling and field studies as a potential treatment material for use in on site wastewater disposal systems. Microsphere enumeration methodology was examined in a factorial experiment to evaluate the minimum density and minimum number of microspheres that should be counted to ensure accurate and precise estimations of concentration. The results suggest that to minimize variability at least 350 microspheres should be counted and a microsphere density of 25-40 microspheres field-1 is necessary. A review of existing methodologies for high-titer bacteriophage production was conducted and an amalgamation of existing methodologies was chosen that reliably achieves elevated concentration and ensures a purified suspension. A combination of batch and column studies was conducted to evaluate the removal of the bacteriophage, PRD-1, and virus-sized fluorescent microspheres by BOF media, and to delineate the relative contributions of the two principle attenuation processes, inactivation and attachment. In the batch studies, substantial removal of PRD-1 does not occur in the pH 7.6 and 9.5 suspensions, but at pH 11.4, removal of the virus was 2.1 log C/C0 day-1 for the first two days, followed by 0.124 log C/C0 day-1 over the subsequent 10 days. Two column studies were conducted after 60 and 300 days of saturation with artificial groundwater at a flow rate of 1 pore volume day-1 using two BOF mixtures. After 300 days of column saturation, microsphere concentrations approached input levels, indicating a removal of 0.1-0.2 log C/C0 and suggesting attachment processes were negligible. PRD-1 removal was more pronounced (1.0-1.5 log C/C0). The reduction of PRD-1 is likely the result of a combination of virus inactivation at elevated pH (10.6-11.4), and attachment processes. Geochemical factors controlling microsphere attachment were compared between the two sets of experiments after 60 and 300 days of column saturation. Differences in attachment efficiency may be due to higher influent DOC concentration in the second experiment, conversion of amorphous iron phases to more crystalline forms over time, reductive dissolution of preferable attachment sites on iron phases, or precipitation of calcite. Hydrus-1D, a one-dimensional numerical model, was used to quantify transport processes, inactivation and attachment/detachment, occurring in the column experiments by model inversion. Fitted microsphere breakthrough closely matched observed data, whereas PRD-1 breakthrough with realistic parameter values does not closely match the peaked nature of the observed curves. The model achieved improved fits for microsphere and PRD-1 breakthrough when both strongly- and weakly-binding sites are represented. A unique set of parameter estimates could not be determined because of overparameterization of the inverse modeling for the experimental systems. An alternative latrine incorporating BOF slag media was constructed in a periurban community located near São Paulo, Brazil. Pathogen indicator removal is approximately 4-5 orders of magnitude in less than one meter of vertical transport through the BOF slag media. In a control latrine, constructed with similar hydraulic characteristics and inert materials, comparable reductions in pathogenic indicators were observed over three meters of vertical transport.