The purpose of this survey research is to unveil the leadership styles of elementary school principals. 350 principals and 700 teachers participated in this study which was conducted in Turkey. Leadership Orientations Questionnaire (Bolman and Deal, 1991) was used to gather data. According to the results of the study, the dominant leadership frame that the principals employ was the human resource frame as to principal and teacher ratings.

Women all over the world are still having difficulties in occupying leadership positions. People perceive males as being highly qualified and likely to be considered as leaders. Females are less likely to be perceived as leaders and to be less effective in carrying it out. There are different leadership theories but the most studied and popular one nowadays is the transformational and transactional model. Female leaders are said to use a leadership behavior based on interpersonal relationships and sharing of power and information, the behavior which is usually associated with the style of leadership known as transformational. Male leaders have been found to influence performance by using rewards and punishment, the behavior mainly associated with the style of leaders known as transactional. The individuals, who work for leaders, are called followers. How followers view the magnitude of difference in power between themselves and their leaders is called a power distance orientation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate transformational and transactional leadership with a gendered and culturally appropriate lens, particularly, to extend the research on gender, leadership and culture area in an Arab Middle East context where little research has been done. This study was guided by two research questions; the first one examining the interaction effect of the participant’s power distance orientation and the leader’s gender on the participant’s perception of the transformational leader; the second one examining the interaction effect of the participant’s power distance orientation and the leader’s gender on the participant’s perception of the transactional leader. This research adopted the quantitative method; the use of vignettes and a questionnaire. 437 employees in an organization in Syria returned a complete and usable questionnaire. Data analyzed using ANOVA and hierarchical multiple regression revealed a significant interaction effect of the gender of the leader and the participant’s power distance orientation on evaluation of a transformational leader on three out of the five dimensions of transformational leadership. Also, results revealed no significant interaction effect of the gender of the leader and the participant’s power distance orientation on evaluation of a transactional leader on the three dimensions. This research makes an important contribution to theoretical understanding of gender by showing gender-role stereotyping may change over time and place. This study offers insight into the culture leadership research that means evaluation of performance for transformational leaders is influenced by the cultural value of a follower’s power distance orientation.

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Studiens syfte är att framlägga de vanligaste konflikterna kommunikativt som uppstår ibyggnadsproduktion mellan arbetsledare, yrkesarbetare och underentreprenörer. Studien taräven upp hur dessa konflikter ska förebyggas samt hantering så det ej återupprepar sig påsamma byggarbetsplats eller nästkommande. Vidare ska studien visa på hur arbetsledare skahantera konflikter som redan har inträffat. Studien exponerar huruvida de olikaledarskapsstilarna implementeras av en arbetsledare för att uppnå en god arbetsmiljö med enbra laganda mellan yrkesarbetare och underentreprenörer. Effekten av detta arbete skulle medhög sannolikhet resultera i bättre kommunikation och en effektivare produktion.I form av en kvalitativ studie besvaras frågeställningarna genom litteraturstudie ochsemistrukturerade intervjuer. En omfattning av 10 stycken kandidater kommer att representeraintervjudelen hos det valda företaget.Det valda företaget där denna studie har utförts är Svenska Entreprenad & Förvaltnings AB(SEFAB). Där upplever ledningen att yrkesarbetare i produktion saknar motivation, därförskall konflikter analyseras. Detta för att uppnå en god arbetsmiljö vilket med hög sannolikhetleder till högre motivation hos medarbetarna.I analysen framkommer den vanligaste orsaken till kommunikativ konflikt, vilket beskrivsvara renhållningen. Hanteringen av denna konflikt föredrar respondenterna att arbetsledarenanvänder sig av en demokratisk ledarstil där alla känner sig delaktiga i beslut. Vidaresammanfattas hantering och förebyggande åtgärder till att hålla en öppen dialog med samtligasamt diskutera problemet. / The purpose of the study is to present the most common conflicts communicatively that arisein house-building production between supervisors, workers and subcontractors. The studyalso addresses how these conflicts should be prevented as well as management so that it doesnot repeat itself at the same construction site or next. In succession, the study will show howsupervisors should handle conflicts that have already erupted. The study exposes whether thedifferent leadership styles are implemented by a supervisor to achieve a good workenvironment with a good team spirit between workers and subcontractors. This work willhopefully lead to better communication and more efficient production in succession.In the form of a qualitative study, the questions will be answered through a literature studyand semi-structured interviews. A total of 10 candidates will represent the interview section atthe selected company.The company selected for this study is Svenska Entreprenad & Förvaltnings AB (SEFAB).There, management feels that workers in the production has lack of motivation, thereforeconflicts must be analyzed in order to achieve a good work environment which hopefullyleads to high motivation among the employees.The analysis shows the most common cause of communicative conflict, which is described asthe cleansing. Handling this conflict, respondents prefer that the supervisor use a democraticleadership style where everyone feels involved in decisions. Furthermore, management andpreventative measures are summarized to keep an open dialogue with everyone and discussthe problem.

Although the topic is trending globally, clear steps forward for female leadership are yet to be made. This is impacted even more by the fact that little empirical research has been conducted to examine the attitudes towards females in managerial positions from different countries' point of view. Therefore, the aim of this research is to get an understanding of the current state of affairs of female leadership in a more global context, with input from both developed and developing countries. Specifically, it explores the similarities and differences of female leadership challenges in Afghanistan and The Netherlands. To explore challenges experienced by, as well as strategies of, Afghan and Dutch female leaders, a qualitative study was conducted. Ten semi-structured interviews were done in-person and through video calls, consisting of 5 interviews for each country. Ten participants, meeting the criteria of holding a leadership/management position, were chosen through convenience sampling. The results showed significant similarities and differences in female leadership challenges, as well as strategies.  The unfortunate entanglement of culture in Afghanistan, under Taliban rule, has resulted in the oppression of female leaders. In the Netherlands, female leadership progress appears idealized. Nevertheless, female leaders in both countries share similar strength and strategies to cope with challenges themselves because society seemingly fails to bring change. As the results also show leadership skills specific to female leaders, societies and organizations worldwide should spread awareness and take action in gender equality, unlocking the full potential of female leadership.

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