Although plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown tremendous potential to be used as inoculants for many agricultural crops, they may not survive severe environmental conditions in the field which could limit their large scale applications. Endophytic bacteria, which can be recovered from inside plant tissues such as roots, stems and leaves, might overcome this limitation due to their unique ecological niche inside plant roots where they are sheltered from external environmental disturbances. Some of these bacterial endophytes have beneficial effects on their host plants and stimulate plant growth or reduce disease symptoms, apparently through mechanisms that are similar to those proposed for PGPR. The objective of this study was to assess a collection of endophytic bacteria for PGPR traits and potential use to enhance the rhizobial-legume symbiosis. Forty isolates obtained from the roots of various plants were identified by fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, and 16S RNA gene sequencing analysis. The majority (i.e., 75%) were identified as Pseudomonas species. Many of these isolates were able to solubilize phosphate, produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), produce aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase, synthesize siderophores and show antagonistic activities against several soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi under in vitro conditions. Selected isolates were further evaluated for the ability to enhance plant growth and nodulation of alfalfa when co-inoculated with Sinorhizobium meliloti under growth chamber conditions using growth pouch and potted soil assays. Results revealed that P. putida strain EB EE 4-25, P. syringae strain EB XDE 4-48, and P. fluorescens strain EB EE 2-23 significantly increased shoot length, root length, enhanced nodulation and increased lateral root formation of alfalfa plants in growth pouch and potted soil assays when co-inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 compared to plants inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 alone. Results also suggested that expression of one or more of the mechanisms, such as solubilization of phosphate, production of IAA, production of siderophores, and ACC deaminase production might have played a role in the enhancement of the alfalfa- Sinorhizobium symbiosis. These results suggest that some endophytic bacterial strains may be useful as biofertilizers and/or biocontrol agents in sustainable agricultural practices.

Although plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown tremendous potential to be used as inoculants for many agricultural crops, they may not survive severe environmental conditions in the field which could limit their large scale applications. Endophytic bacteria, which can be recovered from inside plant tissues such as roots, stems and leaves, might overcome this limitation due to their unique ecological niche inside plant roots where they are sheltered from external environmental disturbances. Some of these bacterial endophytes have beneficial effects on their host plants and stimulate plant growth or reduce disease symptoms, apparently through mechanisms that are similar to those proposed for PGPR. The objective of this study was to assess a collection of endophytic bacteria for PGPR traits and potential use to enhance the rhizobial-legume symbiosis. Forty isolates obtained from the roots of various plants were identified by fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, and 16S RNA gene sequencing analysis. The majority (i.e., 75%) were identified as Pseudomonas species. Many of these isolates were able to solubilize phosphate, produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), produce aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase, synthesize siderophores and show antagonistic activities against several soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi under in vitro conditions. Selected isolates were further evaluated for the ability to enhance plant growth and nodulation of alfalfa when co-inoculated with Sinorhizobium meliloti under growth chamber conditions using growth pouch and potted soil assays. Results revealed that P. putida strain EB EE 4-25, P. syringae strain EB XDE 4-48, and P. fluorescens strain EB EE 2-23 significantly increased shoot length, root length, enhanced nodulation and increased lateral root formation of alfalfa plants in growth pouch and potted soil assays when co-inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 compared to plants inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 alone. Results also suggested that expression of one or more of the mechanisms, such as solubilization of phosphate, production of IAA, production of siderophores, and ACC deaminase production might have played a role in the enhancement of the alfalfa- Sinorhizobium symbiosis. These results suggest that some endophytic bacterial strains may be useful as biofertilizers and/or biocontrol agents in sustainable agricultural practices.

Les endosymbioses racinaires sont des associations bénéfiques établies entre les racines des plantes et des micro-organismes du sol. Ces symbioses ont un intérêt agronomique et écologique puisque les plantes fournissent à leurs partenaires microbiens une niche écologique et des sucres issus de la photosynthèse et en retour, les micro-organismes associés aux racines vont fournir à la plante des nutriments minéraux qui sont actuellement apportés dans l’agriculture conventionnelle sous forme d’engrais. Durant ma thèse, j’ai particulièrement étudié la symbiose endomycorhizienne à arbuscules (AMS). Elle implique des champignons du groupe des Gloméromycètes et plus de 80 % des plantes terrestres. Ainsi cette symbiose est la plus répandue sur terre connue à l’heure actuelle. Plusieurs étapes importantes pour l’établissement de l’AMS ont été définies. La première de ces étapes est la reconnaissance mutuelle entre le champignon endomycorhizien et la plante hôte. Le champignon est capable de percevoir les plantes par les exsudats racinaires qu’elles sécrètent dans la rhizosphère. Dans le mélange complexe de molécules que sont les exsudats racinaires, des phytohormones appelées strigolactones activent le métabolisme des champignons endomycorhizien, la ramification des leurs hyphes et la production de molécules fongiques appelée facteurs Myc. La perception des facteurs Myc par la plante active des processus permettant la colonisation des racines par le champignon. Ce dialogue moléculaire entre champignons endomycorhiziens et plantes hôtes reste toutefois méconnu. Des molécules de type Lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCO) ou chito-oligosaccharides (CO) ont été identifiées dans les exsudats de spores ou d’hyphes de champignons et activent la voie de signalisation symbiotique chez les plantes mais leurs rôles respectifs dans l’établissement de l’AMS restent mal compris. Du côté de la plante, des récepteurs potentiels aux LCOs et aux COs sont codés par les gènes de la famille des Lysin Motif Receptor-Like Kinase (LysM-RLK) qui sont capables de lier les constituants structuraux des LCOs et des COs. Cependant aucune preuve n’avait été apportée, au commencement de ma thèse, permettant de conclure sur le rôle des LCOs, des COs, et des LysM-RLKs dans la mise en place de l’AMS. C’est ce que je me suis attachée à démontrer durant ma thèse. Pour cela, j’ai travaillé sur une dicotylédone (la tomate : Solanum lycopersicum) et sur une monocotylédone (Brachypodium distachyon, un modèle pour le blé). Pour identifier les récepteurs aux LCOs dans ces plantes et déterminer leur rôle dans l’AMS nous avons mis en place des techniques de génétique inverse. Nous avons ensuite déterminé l’affinité de ces récepteurs pour les LCOs. Ainsi, nous avons montré que la perception des LCOs dans la tomate est importante pour la mise en place de l’AMS. Par ailleurs, je me suis intéressée à la symbiose entre des bactéries du type rhizobium et des plantes principalement de la famille des légumineuses. La mise en place de cette symbiose nécessite la synthèse de LCOs par les rhizobia et leur perception par la plante via des récepteurs de la famille des LysM-RLKs. Ces similarités que la symbiose rhizobium-légumineuses partage avec l’AMS nous ont conduits à poser la question de savoir si les récepteurs de LCOs impliqués dans l’AMS (beaucoup plus ancienne que la symbiose rhizobium-légumineuse) ont été recrutés durant l’évolution pour jouer un rôle dans la symbiose rhizobium-légumineuse. J’ai pu montrer que les récepteurs de LCOs impliqués dans l’AMS chez les espèces non-légumineuses susmentionnées sont fonctionnels l’établissement de la symbiose rhizobium-légumineuse chez une légumineuse. / Root endosymbioses are beneficial associations established between plant roots and soil microorganisms. These symbioses have an agronomic and ecological interest as plants provide their microbial partners with an ecological niche and carbohydrates from photosynthesis. In return, the root-associated microorganisms provide the plant with minerals that are currently being delivered in conventional agriculture as fertilizers. During my thesis, I particularly studied the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis (AMS). It involves fungi of the Glomeromycota group and more than 80 % of land plants. This is the currently known most widespread symbiosis on earth. Important steps for the AMS establishment have been defined. The first step is the mutual recognition between the endomycorrhizal fungus and the host plant. Fungi can perceive plants through the root exudates. In the complex mixture of molecules in the root exudates, phytohormones called strigolactones activate the endomycorrhizal fungal metabolism, the branching of their hyphae and the production of fungal molecules called Myc-Factors. Myc-Factors are perceived by the plant and activate a signaling pathway allowing root colonization by the fungus. However, parts of the molecular dialogue between endomycorrhizal fungi and host plants remain unknown. Lipo-chitooligosaccharide (LCO) or chito-oligosaccharides (CO) molecules have been found in exudates of fungal spores or hyphae and were shown to activate the plant symbiotic signaling pathway, however their respective roles in the AMS establishment are unclear. Putative plant receptors for LCOs and COs are encoded by genes from the Lysin Motif Receptor-Like Kinase family (LysM-RLK) which are able of binding the structural LCO and CO components. However, at the beginning of my PhD, we had no evidence allowing to conclude about the involvement of LCOs, COs, or LysM-RLKs in the AMS establishment. During my thesis, I aimed to understand the role the LCOs and their plant receptors in AMS. For this, I used on a dicotyledon (the tomato: Solanum lycopersicum) and on a monocotyledon (Brachypodium distachyon that is a model for wheat). In order to identify the LCO receptors in these two species, I used a reverse genetic approach. Then I determined these receptors affinity for various LCO structures. I showed that in tomato, LCO perception is important for AMS establishment. In addition, I have studied the symbiosis between rhizobium-type bacteria and plants of the legume family. Interestingly, the establishment of this symbiosis requires LCO synthesis by rhizobia and LCO perception by the plant via receptors of the LysM-RLK family. The fact that rhizobium-legume symbiosis shares similarities with the AMS led us to ask whether the LCO receptors involved in AMS (a much more ancient symbiosis than the rhizobium-legume symbiosis) have been recruited during evolution for a role in the rhizobium-legume symbiosis. I demonstrated that the LysM-RLKs involved in AMS in the above mentioned non-legume species are functional for the rhizobium-legumes establishment in a legume species.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Os diferentes solos e manejos culturais afetam o equilÃbrio entre solo e organismos endÃgenos, os quais, por sua vez afetam a sustentabilidade do solo. Desse modo acredita-se que a diversidade dos organismos do solo tenha uma relaÃÃo estreita com a diversidade de outros organismos, tanto na superfÃcie, quanto no prÃprio solo e que as interaÃÃes dessa diversidade microbiana possam levar a uma alteraÃÃo de funÃÃo reduzindo ou ampliando a sustentabilidade dos ecossistemas. InteraÃÃes mutualÃsticas sÃo muito comuns na natureza e desempenham importante papel em muitos processos de diversos ecossistemas. Desse modo, a identificaÃÃo dos padrÃes da estrutura espacial e abundÃncia de microrganismos à um elemento importante e, necessÃrio para identificar esse processo.AssociaÃÃes mutualÃsticas entre plantas e organismos do solo sÃo essenciais para a sobrevivÃncia e crescimento das plantas na maioria dos ecossistemas terrestres. Assim, o uso combinado de leguminosas e microrganismos na reabilitaÃÃo de solos deteriorados à um processo efetivo na reestabilizaÃÃo dos ciclos de nutrientes nesse sistema, pois a estrutura alimentar do solo pode afetar o desenvolvimento da vegetaÃÃo. O mutualismo entre rizÃbios e leguminosas à possÃvel de manipulaÃÃo experimental. Diferente de alguns mutualistas, rizÃbios podem crescer e ser cultivados em meios seletivos. AlÃm disso, seu comportamento mutualista dentro dos nÃdulos pode ser manipulado e monitorado de modo nÃo invasivo. objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a diversidade de estirpes nativas de rizÃbio e a relaÃÃo com algumas espÃcies de leguminosas arbÃreas nativas ocorrentes na Reserva Particular do PatrimÃnio Natural (RPPN) Serra das Almas (05 00â a 05 20â S e 40 48 a 41 12â W) no estado do Cearà (Brasil),em uma Ãrea de caatinga no municÃpio de CrateÃs-Ce, dista 390 Km de Fortaleza, entre cotas de 300 a 350 m de altitude, e que caracteriza-se pro apresentar clima semi Ãrido e pluviosidade mÃdia de 881 mm anuais distribuÃda de Janeiro a Abril. Foram identificadas oito espÃcies de leguminosas arbÃreas, que apresentaramassociaÃÃes com rizÃbios: Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil (Griseb)Altschu (Angico), Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Stend (MororÃ), Poincianella pyramidalis (Tul.) L.P. Queiroz (Catingueira), Erythrina velutina Willd. (Mulungu), Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth (SabiÃ), Minosa acustistipula (Mart.) Benth (Juremabranca), Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir (Jurema-preta), Amburana Cearensis (AllemÃo) A.C. Smith (Emburana). Foram coletados nÃdulos e solo rizosfÃrico para a identificaÃÃo de bactÃrias diazotrÃficas, em dois perÃodos, na estaÃÃo chuvosa e na seca. Foi realizado o cultivo destes rizÃbios nas plantas-isca, Macropitillium atropurpureum (DC) Urban, Vigna unguiculata (L., Walp.), Cajanus cajan var. flavus DC e Mimosa pudica L, bem como a caracterizaÃÃo cultural caracterizaÃÃo cultural de estirpes de rizÃbio isolados, testes de tolerÃncia a nÃveis crescentes de NaCl e a altas temperaturas.Verificou-se que 92,42% dos isolados apresentara crescimento rÃpido e 52,24% acidificaram o meio 79. Um total de 84,93% isolados possuem tolerÃncia a altas temperaturas (45 C), e 90,75% isolados apresentaram tolerÃncia Ãs concentraÃÃes salinas a 5%.Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que hà relaÃÃo entre a tolerÃncia à salinidade e à temperatura quando avaliado in vitro para os isolados testados

During this PhD project three technical platforms were either improved or newly established in order to identify interesting genes involved in SNF, validate their expression and functionally characterise them. An existing 5.6K cDNA array (Colebatch et al., 2004) was extended to produce the 9.6K LjNEST array, while a second array, the 11.6K LjKDRI array, was also produced. Furthermore, the protocol for array hybridisation was substantially improved (Ott et al., in press). After functional classification of all clones according to the MIPS database and annotation of their corresponding tentative consensus sequence (TIGR) these cDNA arrays were used by several international collaborators and by our group (Krusell et al., 2005; in press). To confirm results obtained from the cDNA array analysis different sets of cDNA pools were generated that facilitate rapid qRT-PCR analysis of candidate gene expression. As stable transformation of Lotus japonicus takes several months, an Agrobacterium rhizogenes transformation system was established in the lab and growth conditions for screening transformants for symbiotic phenotypes were improved. These platforms enable us to identify genes, validate their expression and functionally characterise them in the minimum of time.<br> The resources that I helped to establish, were used in collaboration with other people to characterise several genes like the potassium transporter LjKup and the sulphate transporter LjSst1, that were transcriptionally induced in nodules compared to uninfected roots, in more detail (Desbrosses et al., 2004; Krusell et al., 2005). Another gene that was studied in detail was LjAox1. This gene was identified during cDNA array experiments and detailed expression analysis revealed a strong and early induction of the gene during nodulation with high expression in young nodules which declines with the age of the nodule. Therefore, LjAox1 is an early nodulin. Promoter:gus fusions revealed an LjAox1 expression around the nodule endodermis. The physiological role of LjAox1 is currently being persued via RNAi.<br> Using RNA interference, the synthesis of all symbiotic leghemoglobins was silenced simultaneously in Lotus japonicus. As a result, growth of LbRNAi lines was severely inhibited compared to wild-type plants when plants were grown under symbiotic conditions in the absence of mineral nitrogen. The nodules of these plants were arrested in growth 14 post inoculation and lacked the characteristic pinkish colour. Growing these transgenic plants in conditions where reduced nitrogen is available for the plant led to normal plant growth and development. This demonstrates that leghemoglobins are not required for plant development per se, and proves for the first time that leghemoglobins are indispensable for symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Absence of leghemoglobins in LbRNAi nodules led to significant increases in free-oxygen concentrations throughout the nodules, a decrease in energy status as reflected by the ATP/ADP ratio, and an absence of the bacterial nitrogenase protein. The bacterial population within nodules of LbRNAi plants was slightly reduced. Alterations of plant nitrogen and carbon metabolism in LbRNAi nodules was reflected in changes in amino acid composition and starch deposition (Ott et al., 2005). These data provide strong evidence that nodule leghemoglobins function as oxygen transporters that facilitate high flux rates of oxygen to the sites of respiration at low free oxygen concentrations within the infected cells. / Pflanzen der Ordnung der Leguminosen sind von weltweiter Bedeutung für Landwirtschaft und die allgemeine Nährstoffzusammensetzung von Böden. Die physiologische Besonderheit der Leguminosen liegt in ihrer Fähigkeit begründet, zusammen mit Bakterien, den sogenannten Rhizobien, eine Symbiose einzugehen, im Zuge derer es möglich wird, molekularen Luftstickstoff zu binden. Dieser biochemische Prozess findet in neu gebildeten Pflanzenorganen, den sogenannten Wurzelknöllchen statt.<br> In den Pflanzenwissenschaften werden Gene, die im Zuge der Infektion von Leguminosen mit Rhizobien reguliert werden und für den Entwicklungsprozess der Knöllchen eine wichtige Rolle zu spielen scheinen, als Noduline bezeichnet. Mit Hilfe von sogenannten Hochdurchsatzverfahren ist es in den letzten Jahren möglich geworden, die differentielle Expression von Tausenden von Genen gleichzeitig zu beobachten. Zu diesen Verfahren gehören sogenannte cDNA Arrays. Im Zuge dieser Doktorarbeit wurden die weltweit zweitgrößten cDNA Arrays für die Modell-Leguminose Hornklee (Lotus japonicus), der in unserer Gruppe als Untersuchungsobjekt verwendet wird, entwickelt. Mit Hilfe dieser Methode ist es uns möglich, die Regulation von etwa 15.000 Genen gleichzeitig zu untersuchen. Im Zuge von Untersuchungen, die sich mit der Entwicklung von Wurzelknöllchen in Lotus japonicus beschäftigten wurde ein Nodulin, dessen Existenz früher schon einmal beschrieben wurde, noch einmal bestätigt und die Funktion dieses Genes genauer untersucht. Es kodiert für das Enzym Vitamin C Oxidase, das unter Verwendung von molekularem Sauerstoff reduziertes Vitamin C zu einer anderen Form, dem Dehydroascorbat, oxidiert. Dabei wird Wasserstoffperoxid gebildet. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich die Transkription dieses Gens in infizierten Wurzeln kontinuierlich im Verlauf der Symbiose erhöht, jedoch ist die Transkription in jungen Wurzelknöllchen höher als in alten. Darüber hinaus ist es in nur einer Zellschicht der Wurzelknöllchen, die sehr wichtig für die Entwicklung und tatsächliche Funktion der Knöllchen ist, aktiv. Aus den Beobachtungen kann geschlossen werden, dass dieses Gen eine wichtige Funktion in der Entwicklung der Knöllchen zu spielen scheint und vermutlich zur Zellstreckung und Zellteilung in dieser speziellen Zellschicht beiträgt. In einem zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde sich einem zweiten und dem wohl wichtigsten Nodulin der Leguminosen, dem Leghämoglobin, gewidmet. Leghämoglobin ist dem menschlichen Blutbestandteil Hämoglobin sehr ähnlich und erfüllt dieselbe Aufgabe: es bindet Sauerstoff. Dieser Prozess ist für Leguminosen von erheblicher Bedeutung, da die bereits beschriebene Fixierung von molekularem Luftstickstoff durch ein bakterielles Enzym katalysiert wird, das extrem sauerstoffempfindlich ist. Leghämoglobine gelten unbestritten als die am besten charakterisierten Einweiße aus Wurzelknöllchen und Wissenschaftler behaupten seit fast 40 Jahren, dass sie essentiell für die Funktion der Knöllchen sind. Doch dies wurde bis jetzt nie bewiesen.<br> Mit Hilfe einer neuen Methode, die die spezifische Bildung von Eiweißen verhindert, war es uns möglich, die Synthese von Leghämoglobin in Lotus japonicus vollkommen zu unterdrücken. In Folge dessen zeigen die transgenen Pflanzen deutliche Nährstoffmangelerscheinungen, wenn sie ohne zusätzlichen Stickstoff aber zusammen mit Rhizobien angezogen werden. Sie können zwar Wurzelknöllchen bilden, jedoch sind diese kleiner und haben nicht die charakteristische rötliche Farbe, die bei unveränderten Pflanzen gefunden wird. Der Phänotyp dieser transgenen Pflanzen wird ganz eindeutig durch ihre Unfähigkeit hervorgerufen, Luftstickstoff fixieren zu können. Der Grund dafür ist das Fehlen des bakteriellen Enzyms, das für die Fixierung verantwortlich ist. Dieser Verlust wird durch erhöhte Sauerstoffgehalte in den Knöllchen verursacht. Außerdem konnten durch weitere Untersuchungen eine der vermuteten Funktionsmechanismen von Leghämoglobin bestätigt werden. Diese hier präsentierten Untersuchungen beweisen erstmalig die jahrzehnte alte Hypothese, dass Leghämoglobine essentiell für die Stickstofffixierung in Leguminosen sind.

Les symbioses rhizobienne et mycorhizienne à arbuscules sont deux endosymbioses racinaires jouant des rôles importants dans le développement des plantes en améliorant leur nutrition minérale. Les lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs), produits par les bacteries Rhizobia et les champignons mycorhiziens, sont essentiels pour l'établissement de la symbiose rhizobienne et stimulent la mycorhization. Chez la légumineuse Medicago truncatula, trois récepteurs-like kinase à motifs lysin (LysM), LYR3, NFP et LYK3 sont impliqués dans la perception des LCOs. Le travail présenté a eu pour objectif la caractérisation biochimique de ces récepteurs et leurs applications potentielles. Les orthologues de LYR3 de M. truncatula ont été clonés et se sont tous révélés, à l'exception de celui du lupin, capables d'établir une interaction d'affinité élevée avec les LCOs mais pas avec les chitooligosaccharides de structure apparentée. Afin de mieux comprendre les bases moléculaires de la reconnaissance des LCOs, des échanges de domaine entre les protéines LYR3 de lupin et de Medicago ont été effectués et ont révélé l'importance du troisième domaine LysM dans l'interaction. L'exploitation des capacités de reconnaissance des LCOs par LYR3 à des fins biotechnologiques a été évaluée à l'aide de récepteurs chimériques constitués du domaine extracellulaire de LYR3 et du domaine kinase des récepteurs immunitaires AtCERK1 et EFR. Il est apparu que LYR3 peut être utilisé pour élaborer des récepteurs chimériques mais leur mode d'activation reste à optimiser. Enfin l'étude des deux récepteurs symbiotiques NFP et LYK3 suggère qu'ils sont régulés par phosphorylation suite au traitement par les signaux symbiotiques. L'ensemble de ce travail apporte un éclairage nouveau sur les mécanismes de perception des LCOs et sur les modifications associées à leurs récepteurs qui en résultent. / Arbuscular mycorrhization and rhizobial nodulation are two major root endosymbioses which play important roles in plant development by improving their mineral nutrition. Produced by Rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) were shown to be essential for the formation of the rhizobial symbiosis and to have stimulatory effects on mycorrhization. In the legume Medicago truncatula three lysin motif (LysM) receptor-like kinases LYR3, NFP and LYK3 have been shown to be involved in LCO perception. Here work is presented aimed at the biochemical characterization and application of these important receptor proteins. Cloned from several legume species orthologs of M. truncatula LYR3, except from lupin, were shown to bind LCOs with high affinity, but not structurally-related chitooligosaccharides (COs). Domain swaps between the lupin and Medicago proteins were used as a tool to decipher the molecular basis of LCO recognition and revealed the importance of the third LysM domain for LCO binding. The possibility of exploiting the LCO-binding capacity of LYR3 in biotechnology, through the composition of chimeric receptors, was investigated by combining together the extracellular domain of LYR3 protein with the kinases of Arabidopsis thaliana immune receptors, AtCERK1 and EFR. The results suggest that LYR3 could be used for constructing biologically active chimeric proteins whose mode of activation needs to be improved. Finally studies on the two LysM symbiotic receptors NFP and LYK3 suggest that they are regulated by changes in their phosphorylation after symbiotic treatments. Together this work brings light on the mechanisms underlying LCO perception and the modifications that receptors undergo after their treatment with LCO.