Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η εύρεση γεωμετρικών χαρακτηριστικών των αιμοσφαιρίων με ψηφιακή επεξεργασία της σκεδασμένης μονοχρωματικής ακτινοβολίας. Αποτελείται από 5 κεφάλαια. Σε αυτά περιλαμβάνεται η ανάπτυξη, η υλοποίηση και τα αποτελέσματα τεχνικών για την ψηφιακή ανάλυση κι επεξεργασία ιατρικών εικόνων κάτι που παρουσιάζει ιδιαίτερο επιστημονικό ενδιαφέρον. Oι αλγόριθμοι που αναπτύχθηκαν υλοποιήθηκαν με τη βοήθεια του MATLAB 7.1. O κώδικας προγραμματίστηκε από τον Κύριο Aποστολόπουλο και τα αποτελέσματα της εξομοίωσής τους αξιολογήθηκαν σε συνεργασία με τον καθηγητή Κύριο Δερματά. Στο κεφάλαιο 1 επιχειρείται μια εμπεριστατωμένη ανασκόπηση της διεθνούς βιβλιογραφίας πάνω στα ερευνητικά θέματα που άπτονται του “ευθέως προβλήματος” ως θεωρητικό μοντέλο. Αποτελείται από έξι υποκεφάλαια με το πρώτο να αφιερώνεται στη θεωρητική ανάλυση της σκέδασης της ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας (ΗΜ). Στο δεύτερο υποκεφάλαιο γίνεται βιβλιογραφική ανασκόπηση εργασιών που ασχολούνται με τη φυσιολογία και τα γεωμετρικά χαρακτηριστικά των ερυθροκυττάρων, ενώ στο τρίτο υποκεφάλαιο αναλύεται το “ευθύ πρόβλημα σκέδασης”. Στη συνέχεια αναλύεται η σκέδαση ανθρώπινου αιμοσφαιρίου από Ηe-Νe laser και από ηλεκτρομαγνητική ακτινοβολία. Τέλος παρατίθενται εικόνες από laser, οι οποίες προέκυψαν από πειράματα του Κυρίου Τσινόπουλου. Στο κεφάλαιο 2, αναφέρονται βασικές έννοιες ηλεκτρομαγνητισμού και σκέδασης ηλεκτρομαγνητικών κυμάτων. Αρχικά ορίζεται το ηλεκτρομαγνητικό φάσμα και η οπτική Η/Μ ακτινοβολία, η δομή της ύλης και των ατόμων και η απορρόφηση του φωτός από ερυθρά αιμοσφαίρια. Στο τέταρτο υποκεφάλαιο γίνεται μια εκτενής αναφορά στη θεωρία του ηλεκτρομαγνητισμού, τις εξισώσεις Maxwell και τις μακροσκοπικές ιδιότητες του μέσου, για κενό χώρο, ισότροπο και ανισότροπο μέσο καθώς επίσης και οι συνοριακές συνθήκες. Τέλος διατυπώνεται η κυματική μορφή των εξισώσεων Maxwell. Στο κεφάλαιο 3 παρουσιάζονται εφαρμογές παρόμοιων πειραμάτων με το “ευθύ πρόβλημα” σκέδασης ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας σχετικά με τη σκέδαση μικροσωματιδίων. Αρχικά αναλύονται εκτενώς τεχνικές της βιοτεχνολογίας και ιατρικής, όπως η ακτινοδιαγνωστική, η αθηροσκλήρωση και η βρογχοσκόπηση. Στη συνέχεια παρατίθενται εφαρμογές πέραν της ιατρικής οι οποίες παρουσιάζουν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον στη βελτίωση του βιοτικού επιπέδου. Ανάμεσα σ’ αυτές είναι ο προσδιορισμός του μεγέθους βακτηριδίων και η χρήση του Radar. Στο κεφάλαιο 4 περιγράφεται η γενική μορφή του “αντίστροφου προβλήματος” ηλεκτρομαγνητικής σκέδασης. Αρχικά παρατίθενται ο ορισμός του προβλήματος, τα πλεονεκτήματα και τα μειονεκτήματα. Στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζεται εκτενώς η επαναληπτική μέθοδος του “αντίστροφου προβλήματος” ηλεκτρομαγνητικής σκέδασης. Τέλος μοντελοποιούμε το παραπάνω πρόβλημα και αναλύονται τα προβλήματα που προκύπτουν ως αποτέλεσμα ενός παραδείγματος αναδημιουργίας αεροσκάφους με “αντίστροφη σκέδαση”. Στο κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζονται εφαρμογές “αντίστροφων προβλημάτων” ηλεκτρομαγνητικής σκέδασης, καθώς και τα πλεονεκτήματα και μειονεκτήματά τους. Μερικές από αυτές τις εφαρμογές αναλύονται εκτενώς, όπως η εκτίμηση μεγέθους κοπαδιού ψαριών με αεροφωτογραφία, η επισκόπηση αρχαιολογικής γεωφυσικής και η σκέδαση φωτός δισδιάστατης γωνίας για το χαρακτηρισμό των μικροσωματιδίων αεροσκάφους. Στο κεφάλαιο 6 αναλύεται πειραματικά το “αντίστροφο πρόβλημα” σκέδασης με αναφορές σε βασικές έννοιες που χρησιμοποιούνται στο παρόν πείραμα, όπως η κανονικοποίηση εικόνας, ο DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform) και το νευρωνικό Δίκτυο. Εν συνεχεία εκτιμάται το μέγεθος και η μορφή του RBC με το “αντίστροφο πρόβλημα” σκέδασης. Τα προκύπτοντα μεγέθη μετασχηματίζουμε με Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) κι εξάγουμε χαρακτηριστικά γνωρίσματα. Στη συνέχεια κανονικοποιούμε τα χαρακτηριστικά γνωρίσματα και προβλέπουμε τα νευρωνικά δίκτυα για το μέγεθος και τη μορφή των RBC. Τέλος εξάγονται πειραματικά αποτελέσματα και συμπεράσματα. Στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο δίνονται οι μετρήσεις των ερυθροκυττάρων. Γίνεται μια γενική αναφορά στις εικόνες και την ψηφιακή επεξεργασία τους με τη βοήθεια του MATLAB 7.1. Αναφέρονται οι τύποι των εικόνων και η δομή τους καθώς και τα χρήσιμα Φίλτρα Εξάλειψης Θορύβου Εικόνας. Τέλος παρατίθενται οι γραφικές παραστάσεις που προκύπτουν από το Μatlab 7.1 του μέσου απόλυτου σφάλματος (Regression Error) και της επιτυχίας αναγνώρισης σχετικά με τον αριθμό των νευρώνων και σχολιάζονται αναλυτικά. / -

Atmospheric particles, i.e. ice crystals, dust particles, and black carbon, show significant complexities like irregular geometries, inhomogeneity, small-scale surface structures, and play a significant role in the atmosphere by scattering and absorbing the incident solar radiation and terrestrial thermal emission. Knowledge of aerosol scattering properties is a fundamental but challenging aspect of radiative transfer studies and remote sensing applications. This dissertation tries to improve our understanding on the scattering properties of atmospheric particles by investigating both the scattering algorithms and the representation of the realistic particles. One part of this dissertation discusses in details the pseudo-spectral time domain algorithm (PSTD) for calculating scattering properties, its advantages and the elimination of the Gibbs phenomenon. The applicability of the parallelized PSTD implementation is investigated for both spherical and nonspherical particles over a wide range of sizes and refractive indices, and the PSTD is applied for spherical particles with size parameters up to 200, and randomly oriented non-spherical ones with size parameters up to 100. The relative strengths of the PSTD are also shown by a systematic comparison with the discrete dipole approximation (DDA). The PSTD outperforms the DDA for particles with refractive indices larger than 1.4, and ones with smaller refractive indices by large sizes (e.g. size parameters larger than 60 for a refractive index of 1.2). The results suggest significant potential of the PSTD for the numerical investigation of the light scattering and corresponding atmospheric applications. The other part of this dissertation investigates the effects of particle complexities on the light scattering properties of the atmospheric particles, and three aspects corresponding to the irregular geometry, inhomogeneity and surface roughness are studied. To cover the entire particle size range from the Rayleigh to the geometric- optics regimes, the PSTD (for relatively small particles) is combined with the im- proved geometric-optics method (IGOM) that is only applicable for large particles. The Koch-fractal geometry is introduced to model the light scattering properties of aerosol, and performs an excellent job of reproducing the experimental measurements of various mineral dust particles. For the inhomogeneous particles, the applicability of the effective medium approximations (EMA) is tested, and the EMA can be used to approximate the scattering properties of inhomogeneous particles only when the particles are uniformly internal mixtures. Furthermore, an irregular rough model is developed to study the effects of the small-scale surface roughness on the light scattering properties. In conclusion, the dissertation finds that the complexities of atmospheric particles have to be fully considered to obtain their scattering properties accurately.

The molecular theory of the second light-scattering virial coefficient Bp describing the effects of interacting pairs of molecules on the depolarization ratio p of Rayleigh-scattered light is reviewed, both for interacting linear and nonlinear molecules. The molecular tensor theory of Bp for nonlinear molecules is extended for the first time to include in the scattered intensity p those contributions arising from field gradient effects and induced quadrupole moments in the molecular interactions. The expressions for contributions to Bp are evaluated numerically for the nonlinear polar molecule dimethyl ether. We have used an existing light-scattering apparatus to investigate the pressure-dependence of the depolarization ratio p for dimethyl ether, allowing Bp to be extracted. The measured value is compared with the calculated value, theory and experiment being found to agree to within 9%. This success in modelling Bp for dimethyl ether spurred us on to extend our investigation to the second Kerr-effect virial coefficient BK • The molecular-tensor theory of BK for nonlinear molecules is reviewed, and is applied in this work to dimethyl ether. The calculated BK values generally lie within the uncertainty limits of the available measured data over their full range of temperatures. We have used a recently-commissioned Kerr cell to undertake our own measurement of BK for dimethyl ether at room temperature. This value is in good agreement with the findings of our molecular model, and is in reasonable agreement with the other measured data. This thesis serves to reaffirm recent claims that comprehensive dipole-induced-dipole theories of molecular interaction effects explain the observed phenomena adequately provided one works to higher orders in the molecular tensors so that the series of contributing terms has converged to a meaningful numerical result, and provided the full symmetry of the molecules is allowed for. / Thesis (M.Sc.) - University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

The content in the dissertation is divided into two main categories: (1) micro-particle characterization techniques based on elastic light scattering, and (2) ultra-compact on-chip plasmonic light concentration and its applications. For category (1), I developed two techniques, one is in vitro and the other is in the scenario of flow cytometry. I investigated theoretically and experimentally the spectra of scattered light from spherical dielectric particles at certain fixed angles, and demonstrate the linearity between the peak positions in the Fourier domain and the diameter of the particle. Based on this discovery, I demonstrate an efficient and accurate technique for in-vitro micro-particle sizing. Moreover, I theoretically analyzed the far-field elastic scattering signals from micro-particles passing through a flow cytometer with tightly focused incident beams, and established an algorithm to extract size information from the detected signals with higher accuracy than that in conventional flow cytometry systems. For category (2), I proposed an on-chip plasmonic nanofocusing technique whose unit device is a plasmonic triangle-shaped nanotaper mounted upon a dielectric optical waveguide. This structure provides highly efficient and robust light concentration into the tip of the nanotaper. Near-field measurements were performed to thoroughly investigate a fabricated sample and prove the concept. I also proposed theoretically a novel concept named phase-induced local-field configuration with logic behaviors, whose actuators are composite devices built on units of single on-chip plasmonic light concentrators mentioned above.

Uncertainties associated with the microphysical and radiative properties of ice clouds remain an active research area because of the importance these clouds have in atmospheric radiative transfer problems and the energy balance of the Earth. In this study, an adding/doubling model is used to simulate the top of atmosphere (TOA) radiance and full Stokes vector from an ice cloud at the wavelength lambda = 865 nm with many different combinations of assumed ice habits (shapes) and different degrees of ice surface roughness, and the polarized radiance at a wide range of scattering angles is derived. Simulated results are compared with polarized radiance data from the POLDER (POLarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances) instrument on board the PARASOL (Polarization and Anisotropy of Reflectances for Atmospheric Sciences coupled with Observations from a Lidar) satellite. Bulk ice scattering properties are obtained by using five different size distributions collected during field campaigns ranging in effective diameter from 10 micrometers to 90 micrometers. Bulk scattering properties for the MODIS Collection 5 ice cloud product are used in this study, along with properties for two mid-latitude ice cloud models, a polar/mid-latitude ice model, and a model built for ice clouds over deep convection. Solid columns and hollow columns are used as well. The polarized radiance simulation results for the moderate surface roughness level best fit the satellite measurements for all ice models, though severely roughened ice crystals do fare well in a few cases. Hollow columns are the best fit to the satellite polarization measurements, but of the ensemble ice models, the polar/mid-latitude model at an effective diameter of 90 micrometers best fits the polarized radiance measurements for the one day of PARASOL data considered. This model should be the best to simulate ice cloud properties on a global scale.

No description available.

Master of Science / Department of Physics / Christopher M. Sorensen / We investigated the effect of shear on the structure and aggregation kinetics of unstable colloids using small angle light scattering. We used an aqueous suspension of 20 nm polystyrene latex microspheres and MgCl2 to induce aggregation. The sample was only sheared once for approximately 33 seconds at different times, typically 1 min., 5 min., or 15 min., after the onset of aggregation. The average shear rate was in the range of 0.13 - 3.56 s-1, which was in a laminar regime. The unsheared sample gelled after ca. 45 min. When the sample was sheared soon after the onset of aggregation, the aggregation followed DLCA kinetics to yield = 1.80 ± 0.04 aggregates unaffected by the shear. The gel time also remained the same as the unsheared gel. Shearing at later stages of aggregation shortened the gel time and enhanced the scattered light intensity significantly indicating rapid growth. Then, depending on the shear rate, there were three different behaviors. At high shear rates, the aggregate structure was inhomogeneous after the shear was stopped with a crossover in slope in the scattered light intensity vs. q, to imply hybrid superaggregates with two different fractal dimensions. At intermediate shear rates far from the gel point, there was a similar crossover after the shear was stopped; however, the fractal dimension regained 1.80 ± 0.04 at the gel point. At low shear rates, the aggregation rate was increased, but the aggregate structure was uniform, and the fractal dimension remained 1.75 ± 0.05.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Physics / Christopher M. Sorensen / We investigated the effect of shear on the structure and aggregation kinetics of unstable colloids using small angle light scattering. We used an aqueous suspension of 20 nm polystyrene latex microspheres and MgCl[subscript]2 to induce aggregation. The sample was only sheared once for approximately 33 sec at different times, typically 1 min, 5 min, or 15 min, after the onset of aggregation. The average shear rate was in the range of 0.13 - 3.56 sec[superscript]−1 , which was in a laminar regime. The unsheared sample gelled after ca. 45 min. When the sample was sheared soon after the onset of aggregation, the aggregation followed the diffusion limited cluster cluster aggregation (DLCA) kinetics to yield D[subscript f] = 1.80 [plus or minus] 0.04 aggregates unaffected by the shear. The gel time also remained the same as the unsheared gel. Shearing at later stages of aggregation shortened the gel time and enhanced the scattered light intensity significantly indicating rapid growth. Then, depending on the shear rate, there were three different behaviors. At high shear rates, the aggregate structure was inhomogeneous after the shear was stopped with a crossover in slope in the scattered light intensity versus q, to imply hybrid superaggregates with two different fractal dimensions. At intermediate shear rates far from the gel point, there was a similar crossover after the shear was stopped; however, the fractal dimension regained 1.80 [plus or minus] 0.04 at the gel point. At low shear rates, the aggregation rate was increased, but the aggregate structure was uniform, and the fractal dimension remained 1.75 [plus or minus] 0.05.

Atmospheric mineral dust has a large impact on the earth’s radiation balance and climate. The radiative effects of mineral dust depend on factors including, particle size, shape, and composition which can all be extremely complex. Mineral dust particles are typically irregular in shape and can include sharp edges, voids, and fine scale surface roughness. Particle shape can also depend on the type of mineral and can vary as a function of particle size. In addition, atmospheric mineral dust is a complex mixture of different minerals as well as other, possibly organic, components that have been mixed in while these particles are suspended in the atmosphere. Aerosol optical properties are investigated in this work, including studies of the effect of particle size, shape, and composition on the infrared (IR) extinction and visible scattering properties in order to achieve more accurate modeling methods. Studies of particle shape effects on dust optical properties for single component mineral samples of silicate clay and diatomaceous earth are carried out here first. Experimental measurements are modeled using T-matrix theory in a uniform spheroid approximation. Previous efforts to simulate the measured optical properties of silicate clay, using models that assumed particle shape was independent of particle size, have achieved only limited success. However, a model which accounts for a correlation between particle size and shape for the silicate clays offers a large improvement over earlier modeling approaches. Diatomaceous earth is also studied as an example of a single component mineral dust aerosol with extreme particle shapes. A particle shape distribution, determined by fitting the experimental IR extinction data, used as a basis for modeling the visible light scattering properties. While the visible simulations show only modestly good agreement with the scattering data, the fits are generally better than those obtained using more commonly invoked particle shape distributions. The next goal of this work is to investigate if modeling methods developed in the studies of single mineral components can be generalized to predict the optical properties of more authentic aerosol samples which are complex mixtures of different minerals. Samples of Saharan sand, Iowa loess, and Arizona road dust are used here as test cases. T-matrix based simulations of the authentic samples, using measured particle size distributions, empirical mineralogies, and a priori particle shape models for each mineral component are directly compared with the measured IR extinction spectra and visible scattering profiles. This modeling approach offers a significant improvement over more commonly applied models that ignore variations in particle shape with size or mineralogy and include only a moderate range of shape parameters. Mineral dust samples processed with organic acids and humic material are also studied in order to explore how the optical properties of dust can change after being aged in the atmosphere. Processed samples include quartz mixed with humic material, and calcite reacted with acetic and oxalic acid. Clear differences in the light scattering properties are observed for all three processed mineral dust samples when compared to the unprocessed mineral dust or organic salt products. These interactions result in both internal and external mixtures depending on the sample. In addition, the presence of these organic materials can alter the mineral dust particle shape. Overall, however, these results demonstrate the need to account for the effects of atmospheric aging of mineral dust on aerosol optical properties. Particle shape can also affect the aerodynamic properties of mineral dust aerosol. In order to account for these effects, the dynamic shape factor is used to give a measure of particle asphericity. Dynamic shape factors of quartz are measured by mass and mobility selecting particles and measuring their vacuum aerodynamic diameter. From this, dynamic shape factors in both the transition and vacuum regime can be derived. The measured dynamic shape factors of quartz agree quite well with the spheroidal shape distributions derived through studies of the optical properties.

In this work, copolymers of celulose-g-polystyrene (cel-PS) and celulose-g- poly(methylmetacrylate) (cel-PMMA) were characterized using static and dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Preparation of nanoparticles of these hydrophobic copolymers in aqueous solution was further studied, by means of precipitation from dioxane solutions using water with added low-molar-mass surfactants sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) and dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTMAB). It was shown that the ability of the surfactants to stabilize polymer nanoparticles is driven not only by the hydrophobic effect, but it depends also on specific interactions of the polar group of the surfactant with the surface of the nanoparticles. On the basis of the finding that the efficiency of stabilization of cel-PS copolymers is much higher than in case of linear PS, it can be concluded, that the branched structure of copolymers is favorable for the formation of hydrofobically stabilised polymer-surfactant complexes.