A Distance Protection System based on the Transputer has been developed in which the Distance Protection Scheme is modelled in Occam, a parallel processing language designed to support the concept of communicating sequential processes running on the Transputer. Two Data Acquisition arrangements have been investigated, one controlled by an Interfacing Transputer via Link Adaptors, the other making use of existing Protection Data Acquisition equipment controlled by the Interfacing Transputer through Dual Port RAM. In both cases other similar additional Transputer modules are interconnected with the Interfacing Transputer to form a parallel processing system for a Distance Protection Scheme. The Occam model of the Protection System has been developed around a central control program (Harness) which can be easily modified to accommodate different Protection algorithms. In addition the Occam Protection Harness incorporates features to allow it to fail safely or run on a single Transputer version of the Harness should the Transputer network fail. This arrangement provides a new approach in the development of Protection systems using multiple processing elements with an Occam Protection Harness that can accommodate different algorithms and Trip logic schemes. The Thesis describes the design of the system and indicates its performance capabilities and limitations. This research indicates that a full three phase distance protection scheme can be realised using four Transputers running simple short data window impedance calculating algorithms, together with post impedance processing and Trip logic. More complex algorithms will require additional faster Transputers but can be realised using the same Occam Protection Harness.

Nowadays two main types of protection schemes widely used in protection of transmission lines are: distance protection and differential protection schemes. However, it has been noticed from industrial practice that the distance protection scheme used today generally is limited in tripping speed and selectivity. Also differential protection scheme is influenced by the time synchronization of samples in both relays installed at transmission line terminals. On the other hand, among various pilot protection schemes for protection of Extra High Voltage (EHV) / Ultra High Voltage (UHV) transmission lines, the schemes which use communication link only for exchange of local decision making about faults’ status are not affected by time synchronization. This master thesis is dealing with the issue of developing reliable and fast fault detection scheme for protection of EHV/UHV transmission lines which is a requirement in modern power systems. The protection algorithm proposed in this thesis is based on the detection and analysis of traveling waves on transmission lines at inception of the faults. This algorithm relies on directional comparison between initial arrivals of traveling waves at each end of the protected line. This will determine whether or not a fault is inside the protected zone. In addition to, based on high voltage transmission network protection requirements proper phase selection algorithm is developed to handle single- phase tripping. Finally, by simulations carried out in PSCAD environment practical design considerations for implementing the new developed protection algorithm in a numerical relay unit is investigated. The results of simulation show that the proposed pilot protection scheme solves several issues encountered by using the conventional schemes and provide reliable and high speed protection for transmission lines.

The master´s thesis deals with the design of medium voltage power line protection and the calculation of reliability indicators. First, it deals with the possibilities of power system operation. Subsequently, it divides the networks according to the grounding of the transformer node and the switching elements and devices occurring in the MV distribution network are mentioned. It presents the basic classification of power line protection and its use, especially it focuses on overhead and cable MV power lines. It also discusses the reliability of the power supply and lists the basic reliability indicators and their possible calculation. The practical part describes the changes in the considered area of the distribution network, where the reconstruction of the power line VN872 and a new way of powering the village Drnholec will take place. The impact of this change on the reliability of the supplied energy is also calculated. Furthermore, the protection of the power line is designed and the correctness of its setting is then verified on the model in the PSS Sincal software.

A proteção de sistemas de energia elétrica possui papel extremamente importante no aspecto de garantir o fornecimento de energia de maneira segura e confiável. Assim, a ação indevida ou a não atuação deste sistema de proteção pode causar danos materiais ou econômicos tanto para as concessionárias quanto para os consumidores de energia elétrica. Dessa forma, o sistema de proteção deve estar bem ajustado para que possa garantir suas funções, sendo sensível, seletivo, confiável e rápido. Para tanto, uma boa coordenação entre os relés de proteção deve ser estabelecida. No caso de um sistema de transmissão, o qual costuma ser um sistema malhado, a proteção é comumente realizada por relés de distância aliados a relés de sobrecorrente com unidade direcional, sendo que estes funcionam como elemento de retaguarda daqueles. O processo de ajuste desses relés é um trabalho muito difícil e demorado, que pode ainda estar sujeito a erros do engenheiro de proteção responsável pelo estudo. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver uma metodologia baseada na otimização por enxame de partículas que obtenha automaticamente os ajustes desses relés de forma a garantir a coordenação e seletividade entre eles, tornando assim o processo de ajuste mais rápido e preciso. Dessa forma, essa metodologia pode constituir uma ferramenta de auxílio muito favorável ao engenheiro de proteção. Além disso, como em todo problema de otimização, a função objetivo e as restrições foram definidas de maneira a retratar o problema de coordenação envolvendo tanto os relés de distância quanto os direcionais de sobrecorrente. A metodologia foi aplicada a dois sistemas, um fictício com 16 relés e um sistema de transmissão real com 44 relés, sendo que em ambos os casos ela apresentou resultados bastante satisfatórios proporcionando ajustes bem coordenados. / Electrical power systems protection has a very important role in the aspect of ensuring energy supply with safety and reliability. Thus, improper action or non-actuation of this protection system can cause materials and/or economics damages to electricity utilities as well as ordinary energy consumers. Therefore the protection system must be well adjusted so it can ensure its functions and thus being sensible, selective, reliable and fast. In order to achieve these characteristics, the protective relays must be well coordinated. In the case of meshed transmission systems, the protection is generally performed by distance relays as primary protection associated with directional overcurrent relays as backup protection. The process of adjusting these relays is very tough, slow and it can even be subject to the protection engineer mistakes. In this context, this work aims to develop a particle swarm optimization based methodology that can automatically obtain these relays adjusts so they can ensure relays coordination and selectivity, and then make this setting process faster and more precise. Thus, this methodology may provide a very favorable tool to aid the protection engineer. Moreover, as in any optimization problem, the objective function and the constraints were defined to represent the coordination problem involving both distance and directional overcurrent relays. The methodology was applied to two systems, a fictitious with 16 relays and a real transmission system with 44 relays, and in both cases it showed satisfactory results providing well-coordinated settings.

A proteção de sistemas de energia elétrica possui papel extremamente importante no aspecto de garantir o fornecimento de energia de maneira segura e confiável. Assim, a ação indevida ou a não atuação deste sistema de proteção pode causar danos materiais ou econômicos tanto para as concessionárias quanto para os consumidores de energia elétrica. Dessa forma, o sistema de proteção deve estar bem ajustado para que possa garantir suas funções, sendo sensível, seletivo, confiável e rápido. Para tanto, uma boa coordenação entre os relés de proteção deve ser estabelecida. No caso de um sistema de transmissão, o qual costuma ser um sistema malhado, a proteção é comumente realizada por relés de distância aliados a relés de sobrecorrente com unidade direcional, sendo que estes funcionam como elemento de retaguarda daqueles. O processo de ajuste desses relés é um trabalho muito difícil e demorado, que pode ainda estar sujeito a erros do engenheiro de proteção responsável pelo estudo. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver uma metodologia baseada na otimização por enxame de partículas que obtenha automaticamente os ajustes desses relés de forma a garantir a coordenação e seletividade entre eles, tornando assim o processo de ajuste mais rápido e preciso. Dessa forma, essa metodologia pode constituir uma ferramenta de auxílio muito favorável ao engenheiro de proteção. Além disso, como em todo problema de otimização, a função objetivo e as restrições foram definidas de maneira a retratar o problema de coordenação envolvendo tanto os relés de distância quanto os direcionais de sobrecorrente. A metodologia foi aplicada a dois sistemas, um fictício com 16 relés e um sistema de transmissão real com 44 relés, sendo que em ambos os casos ela apresentou resultados bastante satisfatórios proporcionando ajustes bem coordenados. / Electrical power systems protection has a very important role in the aspect of ensuring energy supply with safety and reliability. Thus, improper action or non-actuation of this protection system can cause materials and/or economics damages to electricity utilities as well as ordinary energy consumers. Therefore the protection system must be well adjusted so it can ensure its functions and thus being sensible, selective, reliable and fast. In order to achieve these characteristics, the protective relays must be well coordinated. In the case of meshed transmission systems, the protection is generally performed by distance relays as primary protection associated with directional overcurrent relays as backup protection. The process of adjusting these relays is very tough, slow and it can even be subject to the protection engineer mistakes. In this context, this work aims to develop a particle swarm optimization based methodology that can automatically obtain these relays adjusts so they can ensure relays coordination and selectivity, and then make this setting process faster and more precise. Thus, this methodology may provide a very favorable tool to aid the protection engineer. Moreover, as in any optimization problem, the objective function and the constraints were defined to represent the coordination problem involving both distance and directional overcurrent relays. The methodology was applied to two systems, a fictitious with 16 relays and a real transmission system with 44 relays, and in both cases it showed satisfactory results providing well-coordinated settings.

This thesis describes an investigation into the influences of arcing and conductor deflection due to magnetic forces on the accuracy of fault locator algorithms in electrical distribution networks. The work also explores the possibilities of using the properties of an arc to identify two specific types of faults that may occur on an overhead distribution line. A new technique using the convolution operator is introduced for deriving differential equation algorithms. The first algorithm was derived by estimating the voltage as an array of impulse functions while the second algorithm was derived using a piecewise linear voltage signal. These algorithms were tested on a simulated single-phase circuit using a PI-model line. It was shown that the second algorithm gave identical results as the existing dynamic integration operator type algorithm. The first algorithm used a transformation to a three-phase circuit that did not require any matrix calculations as an equivalent sequence component circuit is utilised for a single-phase to ground fault. A simulated arc was used to test the influence of the non-linearity of an arc on the accuracy of this algorithm. The simulations showed that the variation in the resistance due to arcing causes large oscillations of the algorithm output and a 40th order mean filter was used to increase the accuracy and stability of the algorithm. The same tests were performed on a previously developed fault locator algorithm that includes a square-wave power frequency proximation of the fault arc. This algorithm gave more accurate and stable results even with large arc length variations. During phase-to-phase fault conditions, two opposing magnetic fields force the conductors outwards away from each other and this movement causes a change in the total inductance of the line. A three dimensional finite element line model based on standard wave equations but incorporating magnetic forces was used to evaluate this phenomenon. The results show that appreciable errors in the distance estimations can be expected especially on poorly tensioned di stribution lines.New techniques were also explored that are based on identification of the fault arc. Two methods were successfully tested on simulated networks to identify a breakingconductor. The methods are based on the rate of increase in arc length during the breaking of the conductor. The first method uses arc voltage increase as the basis of the detection while the second method make use of the increase in the non-linearity of the network resistance to identify a breaking conductor. An unsuccessful attempt was made to identifying conductor clashing caused by high winds: it was found that too many parameters influence the separation speed of the two conductors. No unique characteristic could be found to identify the conductor clashing using the speed of conductor separation. The existing algorithm was also used to estimate the voltage in a distribution network during a fault for power quality monitoring purposes.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This Doctoral Thesis proposes a new methodology for transmission line protection tolerant to power swings. The algorithm developed has the ability to detect, classify and locate all fault types with and without power swings, including those that produce high values of fault resistance. In a first step, it is proposed a fault distance estimator based on the leastsquare curve fitting. The fault locator, for protection proposes, was modeled by a series R-L circuit and differential equations. In a second step, the main causes and consequences of power swings in transmission lines distance relays are introduced. Also in this context, techniques to minimize these effects are presented. Besides, computer simulations of power swings, with different fault scenarios, were carried out to realize comparative analyses between the methods. The results show that none of the methods is efficient in all scenarios. Hence, there is still some concern about the performance of the protection methods against power swings. In a third step, it was developed an algorithm for numerical protection in transmission lines immune to power swings. The detection and classification steps are based on Mathematical Morphology. In order to obtain a safer operation of the relay, especially in the boundaries of threshold set, a counting strategy was developed. The main innovation of the work is based on difference of behavior of the exponentially decaying component (dc component) during a fault and during a power swing. The dc component, obtained by means of morphological filter, is used as a tripping criterion. Finally, in order to evaluate the algorithm performance, tests with different fault and power swings scenarios were performed. The results show that the technique has the speed and safety required even during power swings due to the simplicity of the algorithm used in mathematical operations. / Neste trabalho propõe-se uma nova metodologia de proteção de linhas de transmissão, tolerante as oscilações de potência. O algoritmo desenvolvido tem a capacidade de detectar, classificar e localizar todos os tipos de faltas, com e sem a presença de oscilações de potência, inclusive aquelas que produzem altos valores de resistência de falta. Em uma primeira etapa com o emprego do método de ajuste de curvas por mínimos quadrados desenvolve-se um estimador para localizar a posição das faltas. Para fins de proteção, este é modelado por meio de um circuito R-L série representado por suas equações diferenciais. Em uma segunda etapa são apresentadas as principais causas das oscilações de potência, bem como suas consequências para os relés de distância de linhas de transmissão. Ainda neste contexto, são apresentadas, analisadas e comparadas algumas técnicas destinadas a minimizar estes efeitos. Essas técnicas foram testadas por meio de simulações computacionais, sob condições de oscilação de potência com e sem a presença de curtos-circuitos, considerando-se diversos valores de carregamento e frequências de oscilação. Os resultados mostraram que nenhum método é totalmente eficiente para todos os cenários. Desse modo, ainda há algumas incertezas sobre o desempenho das técnicas de proteção contra as oscilações de potência existentes. Em uma terceira etapa, foi desenvolvido um algoritmo para proteção numérica de linhas de transmissão imune as oscilações de potência. A metodologia faz uso da Morfologia Matemática nas etapas de detecção e classificação das faltas. De modo a se obter uma maior segurança na operação do relé, especialmente na região próxima ao limiar de operação, incorporou-se uma estratégia de contagem diferente das tradicionais. A principal contribuição do trabalho relaciona-se com a análise da diferença comportamental da componente exponencial decrescente (componente dc) para uma situação de falta e de oscilação de potência. Ou seja, a componente dc, obtida por meio de um filtro morfológico, é utilizada como critério de disparo do relé de distância. Para avaliar o desempenho do algoritmo desenvolvido, uma série de testes com diferentes cenários de faltas com e sem a presença de oscilações de potência foram realizadas. Devido à simplicidade das operações matemáticas utilizadas no algoritmo, a técnica apresenta segurança e velocidade na sua operação, mesmo durante oscilações de potência.

Rapidly growing Inverter- Based Resources (IBR) have different fault properties compared to Synchronous Generators (SG). Therefore, it is necessary to study the fault behavior of systems that contain different types of IBR and compare it to the conventional system responses in order to understand what steps should be taken to adapt conventional protection settings for new types of sources. For a two bus model, it is found out that sequence profiles in a system with one IBR are different from those observed in conventional system. Thermal and electrical limitations of the power electronics reduce the fault current from the IBR significantly, driving negative sequence current to small values compared to conventional sources. This is true for all studied types of IBR. Moreover, if IBR is connected to the grid through one line only, during Three Phase Fault (3hp) it is possible to lose synchronism with grid due to erroneous estimation of the grid angle through the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL). Verification of the obtained results is made through comparison to the Fault Recordings taken from the protection relays placed at substations. It is shown that for some faults simulation results can predict the behavior of symmetrical components in the network whereas for others they do not. To explain the latter behavior modifications to the sequence networks are proposed. / Snabbt växande inverterbaserade resurser (IBR) har olika felinmatningsegenskaper jämfört med synkrongeneratorer (SG). Därför är det nödvändigt att studera felbeteende hos system som innehåller olika typer av IBR och jämför det med konventionella källor för att kunna förstå vilka steg som ska göras för att anpassa konventionella skyddsinställningar för nya typer av källor. Under litteraturöversikten introduktion till det fast jordade systemet och dess speciella fall med isolerad transformatorjordning är klar. Kort introduktion till den studerade IBR och typer av simulerade fel görs också. För en tvåbussmodell har det visat sig att sekvensprofiler i ett system med en IBR skiljer sig från de som observerats i konventionella system. Termisk och elektrisk begränsningar i kraftelektroniska komponenter minskar felströmmen från IBR avsevärt och driver negativ sekvensström till små värden jämfört med konventionella källor. Detta gäller för alla studerade typer av IBR. Dessutom, om IBR är ansluten till nätet endast genom en linje, är det möjligt under trefasfel (3hp) att tappa synkronisering med nätet på grund av felaktig uppskattning av fasvinkeln genom styrsystemets faslåst slinga (PLL). Verifiering av de erhållna resultaten görs genom jämförelse med Fel Inspelningar från reläet placerade på transformatorstationer. Det visas att för vissa fel simuleringsresultat kan förutsäga symmetriska komponenters beteende i nätverket medan andra inte gör det. För att förklara de senare beteendena föreslås modifieringar i sekvensnätverket.