On the agenda in the Brazilian political sphere in the last decade have been poverty reduction and the growth of the coastal fisheries sector. The livelihood strategies of small-scale fishers along the coast of Paraty, Brazil have been constrained due to a lack of credit options. Using mixed method survey instruments; fishers, informal lenders and the Bank of Brazil were interviewed to determine the role of credit for fisher livelihoods. Results showed that the majority of fishers considered credit vital for their livelihood purchases, such as gear replacements and boats. However, informal and formal credit was not reaching the economically vulnerable fishers, which accounted for one third of the fishers interviewed. Lucrative emerging sectors such as tourism is playing a key role in livelihood diversification among fishers, however, a new credit option compatible for lower income households is required in order to raise the livelihood security of small-scale fishers.

On the agenda in the Brazilian political sphere in the last decade have been poverty reduction and the growth of the coastal fisheries sector. The livelihood strategies of small-scale fishers along the coast of Paraty, Brazil have been constrained due to a lack of credit options. Using mixed method survey instruments; fishers, informal lenders and the Bank of Brazil were interviewed to determine the role of credit for fisher livelihoods. Results showed that the majority of fishers considered credit vital for their livelihood purchases, such as gear replacements and boats. However, informal and formal credit was not reaching the economically vulnerable fishers, which accounted for one third of the fishers interviewed. Lucrative emerging sectors such as tourism is playing a key role in livelihood diversification among fishers, however, a new credit option compatible for lower income households is required in order to raise the livelihood security of small-scale fishers.

Summary This chapter brings to a conclusion the main issues that have been raised in the book and provides some ideas on the type of policies that are needed to enhance land-based livelihoods in the Eastern Cape Province and possibly elsewhere in South Africa. In our opinion the key objective of agrarian policy should be the facilitation of a process that can be labelled as repeasantisation (chapter 1). The empirical material in this book shows that there are still remnants of a peasantry in both villages, albeit few and limited in extent. By examining these we simultaneously explored what constitutes the agrarian in contemporary rural villages such as Guquka and Koloni. The evidence presented indicates a long process of retreat of the agrarian in the rural central Eastern Cape province. Critical examination of past and contemporary interventions in these rural areas, such as betterment planning and land and agrarian reform initiatives, raises questions about the role of expert knowledge in rural and agrarian development in South Africa. There are elements of continuity in the approach being used, leading to the conclusion that alternative expert curricula in agriculture and rural development are needed.

This thesis focuses on the challenge of achieving the goal of universal primary education in a context that is characterised by wide-ranging disparities in the education prospects of different social groups. An overall history of state failure to provide for universal education, and the patterns of exclusion and deprivation that constrain the participation of large sections of Indian rural populations provide the background to recent policy efforts to address the problem of low education participation. The thesis argues that concerted effort is required on the part of households and of the state if future efforts to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) are to be more successful than the past. It analyses new approaches which recognise the importance of challenging inequality in access to education, the role of community organisations in the process of stimulating participation in education, and the need for the reform of the administrative apparatus of the state into a more responsive, flexible institution. The coproduction framework facilitates the analysis of the means through which different institutional actors can co-operate in the production of goods and services. Recognition of the importance of social norms and networks that aid co-operation between different actors, and of the importance of effective governance on the part of the state in constructing positive relations between different actors are the strengths of the framework. However, the framework also has limitations. The thesis principally identifies the following: the assumption of shared orientations between users about the value of the good or service concerned, and the implicit assumption of homogeneity among service users and lack of attention paid to inequality and exclusion. Further, the thesis argues that there is insufficient empirical attention to the informal relations within which processes of implementation are embedded. Evidence of limitations is provided through application to a rural district, where the interface between state, community organisations and households in relation to primary education services is studied. Centrally, the thesis argues that the analysis of norms that perpetuate the reproduction of patterns of education exclusion is essential to identify the types of production processes and relationships that are necessary for inclusive and universal education.

This study investigated the livelihood strategies of mountain communities and their relationships with natural resources in northern Pakistan. Interventions by the State to conserve biodiversity have led to the “decommonisation” of the commons and with strict sanctions on the local communities restricting their access to the resources. This has resulted in severe conflicts between the State and the local communities. In light of the adverse effects of “decommonisation,” prevailing institutions, international conservation organizations, have initiated the “re-coupling” of the local communities with resource management. However, this process of “new-commonisation” appears to be failing because it has not provided “a sense of ownership” among the local communities. To investigate the pertinent issues, this research encompassed five areas for analysis: 1) the dynamics of mountain livelihoods; 2) the vulnerability and coping strategies of mountain communities; 3) the “decommonisation” of mountain commons; 4) international NGO-led “new commonisation” of natural resource endowments, with efforts to involve local communities; and 5) the formulation of a framework towards sustainable mountain livelihoods. The study collected evidence from two communities in northern Pakistan, namely, Shimshal and Naltar Valley, during July 2006-September 2008. A four-tier field method was used that included introductory workshops, household surveys, focus group discussions, and data validation. This investigation identified the following findings: 1) there has been a significant reduction in the livelihood options of local communities due to State-induced “Protected Areas,” 2) traditional pasture management systems have been facing serious threats from State institutional measures; 3) some communities have proactively attempted to diversify their economy by expanding household portfolios into non-agricultural sectors; 4) external drivers of local socio-economic conditions have augmented local vulnerability; 5) in the face of external threats, some traditional institutions have transformed themselves into formalized institutions with the capability to establish cross-scale linkages. There is a potential to manage the commons through revitalized local institutions that would promote “self-governance” in managing the commons. It stresses the need to understand the local livelihoods from the perspective of the local people, so as to advance effectively the conservation of natural resources in the context of mountain areas.

The research examines the role of green micro-credit in creating livelihood options and women’s empowerment in Hakaluki haor. The role of green micro-credit is found important in creating livelihood options. The more livelihood options that the borrowers have, the less they are vulnerable to crises. Results related to women’s empowerment were diverse and complex. Women’s empowerment can mean different things to different individuals. Woman’s restricted mobility, low skill-set, and domestic workload impeded them from investing and using green micro-credit. Borrowers were found to be innovative, and had the capacity to maximize economic benefit from the green enterprises. The impacts of green micro-credit on environmental sustainability are yet to be assessed. Green micro-credit has not been running long enough. For firmer conclusions, a longitudinal study of sustainability and empowerment under green micro-credit would be needed.

This thesis investigates agrarian transitions within aquarian contexts by investigating livelihood transitions in a small rural fishing village in central Vietnam. Examined are powers at play that inform livelihood transitions as fishers and fish farmers respond by moving in and out of different production systems in order to maintain their fishing and fish farming livelihoods. This research reveals that aquarian transitions in Vietnam could follow a similar trajectory of agrarian transitions whereby smaller, less efficient production systems make room for more efficient economies of scale. In conducting a thorough and detailed empirical analysis of production systems, the socio-economic relations that shape production systems, and natural resource governance within the Vietnamese context, this research contributes to a better understanding of the knowledge surrounding fishery resources and livelihood options.

The research examines the role of green micro-credit in creating livelihood options and women’s empowerment in Hakaluki haor. The role of green micro-credit is found important in creating livelihood options. The more livelihood options that the borrowers have, the less they are vulnerable to crises. Results related to women’s empowerment were diverse and complex. Women’s empowerment can mean different things to different individuals. Woman’s restricted mobility, low skill-set, and domestic workload impeded them from investing and using green micro-credit. Borrowers were found to be innovative, and had the capacity to maximize economic benefit from the green enterprises. The impacts of green micro-credit on environmental sustainability are yet to be assessed. Green micro-credit has not been running long enough. For firmer conclusions, a longitudinal study of sustainability and empowerment under green micro-credit would be needed.

This study investigated the livelihood strategies of mountain communities and their relationships with natural resources in northern Pakistan. Interventions by the State to conserve biodiversity have led to the “decommonisation” of the commons and with strict sanctions on the local communities restricting their access to the resources. This has resulted in severe conflicts between the State and the local communities. In light of the adverse effects of “decommonisation,” prevailing institutions, international conservation organizations, have initiated the “re-coupling” of the local communities with resource management. However, this process of “new-commonisation” appears to be failing because it has not provided “a sense of ownership” among the local communities. To investigate the pertinent issues, this research encompassed five areas for analysis: 1) the dynamics of mountain livelihoods; 2) the vulnerability and coping strategies of mountain communities; 3) the “decommonisation” of mountain commons; 4) international NGO-led “new commonisation” of natural resource endowments, with efforts to involve local communities; and 5) the formulation of a framework towards sustainable mountain livelihoods. The study collected evidence from two communities in northern Pakistan, namely, Shimshal and Naltar Valley, during July 2006-September 2008. A four-tier field method was used that included introductory workshops, household surveys, focus group discussions, and data validation. This investigation identified the following findings: 1) there has been a significant reduction in the livelihood options of local communities due to State-induced “Protected Areas,” 2) traditional pasture management systems have been facing serious threats from State institutional measures; 3) some communities have proactively attempted to diversify their economy by expanding household portfolios into non-agricultural sectors; 4) external drivers of local socio-economic conditions have augmented local vulnerability; 5) in the face of external threats, some traditional institutions have transformed themselves into formalized institutions with the capability to establish cross-scale linkages. There is a potential to manage the commons through revitalized local institutions that would promote “self-governance” in managing the commons. It stresses the need to understand the local livelihoods from the perspective of the local people, so as to advance effectively the conservation of natural resources in the context of mountain areas.

The development interventions of the past thirty years have relied on microcredit and other microfinancial services as a way to include the poor in the dynamics of the free market, so they may have a better chance of benefiting from economic development. Nowadays, the microfinance industry in Bolivia is highly developed, and the country is usually mentioned next to Bangladesh and India as a success case of microcredit, as a myriad of microfinancial institutions operate combining credit, savings and insurance with education, women empowerment or production efforts. In this setting, the Peces Para la Vida II project was started in Bolivia in early 2015, with the objective of improving food security in Bolivia through the promotion of small-scale aquaculture and fisheries in the Bolivian Amazon. As a part of this promotion strategy, a microcredit component was included in the project with the intention of scaling up the benefits found in the first stage of the project via an individual microcredit component and a group microleasing operation. Using a qualitative application of an analytical framework that combines Amartya Sen’s capability approach and the Department for International Development’s sustainable livelihoods approach, this thesis will argue that unless certain conditions on access to markets that enable savings and wealth creation are met, individual microcredit alone may not be sufficient to lead its users towards capabilities that ultimately improve their access to better endowments of various types of capitals, and that the group leasing operation appears to be more promising in terms of allowing those involved as it tackles productivity and market issues simultaneously, but with an implementation plagued with problems and the short time the operation has been underway, it would be premature to be definitive about these results. / Graduate