Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oregon State University, 1996. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 62-66). Also available on the World Wide Web.

Thesis (doctoral)--Uppsala universitet, 1989. / Summary in English. Added t.p. with thesis statement inserted. Includes bibliographical references (p. 198-208).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 154-162).

Logging has traditionally been regarded as an occupation exceptionally prone to industrial conflict. This study analyses some of the forms which conflict takes, both between loggers and their employers and between loggers themselves, and suggests hypotheses to account for such conflict. A brief account of the early conditions in the industry is presented, with special emphasis on the hostility which existed between the men and their employers in the inter-war years as a result of the latter’s opposition to I.W.W. and unionizing activities. The argument is presented that the work ideology of the loggers which developed during this period was characterized by anti-authoritarian values and the concept of ‘freedom’ on the job. This ideology still survives today, though in somewhat diluted form. It is suggested that the increasing rationalization of the industry, and the imposition of strict work routines and increased discipline that this entails, runs directly counter to the loggers’ work expectations. The conflicts arising from this situation are documented by reference to material collected during a stay in a logging camp on Vancouver Island. A further source of conflict is seen to derive from the hazardous nature of logging operations. Because of the high fatality and injury rate in the occupation it is argued that the strict application of discipline demanded by the process of rationalization cannot be effectively imposed when those in positions of authority are held responsible for workers' safety. Evidence is also presented to show that the refusal to accept orders can be validated by reference to the moral priority of 'safety’ over the demands for productive efficiency. The dangers inherent in the job are also regarded as a ‘cost' which has to be offset by compensating 'rewards' of various kinds; the less acceptable the advantages are relative to disadvantages, the greater will be the loggers' propensity to reject authority. Because dangerous occupations have by definition heavy disadvantages for workers, it is suggested that they will thus be particularly prone to industrial conflict. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate

The conversion of timber reserves into lumber is the largest industrial enterprise in British Columbia. The importance of this activity to the economy depends on a large provincial resource base and the ability to sell the processed goods to domestic and world markets. The objective of this study is to examine the dynamic nature of the, distribution and trends in Coast and Interior lumber trade (1947-1957) as they relate to the inter and intra-action or physical and human conditions in the source areas and markets. Even though Coast extraction of wood exceeds the allowable annual cut at the present level of exploitation and the Interior forests are being undercut, Crown control has been insufficient to effectively regulate the distribution of logging. Therefore, it was the, relative physical and economic accessibility of Interior timber, private cognizance of the limited size of Coast reserves, and Coast interest in the production of more highly processed wood commodities that resulted in the faster expansion of Interior sawmilling. In the future this trend will probably continue, since the full level of allowable annual, exploitation permits a much larger volume of extraction in the Interior. The distribution of sawmilling and their size are related to: (1) type and availability of transportation facilities, (2.) amenities available from service centers, and (3) duration of lumber processing. Provincial trade expanded fairly steadily to a peak in 1956 with the growth of world population and economic recovery after World War II, but this trend was modified by conditions in specific markets and by maritime freight rates. Interior shipments experienced this same increase as they became a more important, but not the major, source of British Columbia lumber. In contrast Coast shipments tended to fluctuate markedly. The major markets for provincial lumber were, respectively Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Other countries (primarily the Union of South Africa and Australia). The Coast sawmills have a large water-borne trade with overseas markets and the United States' Atlantic ports, whereas the Interior, which depends on rail transport, sells almost exclusively to North America. British Columbia had difficulty in selling to the United Kingdom because of the direct competition for most lumber specifications with the closer sources in Sweden, Finland, and the Soviet Union. The volume of provincial shipments fluctuated with the level of British housing construction, import restrictions, and the release of stockpiled lumber. The major exporter to the Union of South Africa and Australia was British Columbia, but the United States and the Scandinavian countries, with the addition of New Zealand in the Australian market only, were also important suppliers. In both consuming areas the province has an advantage as the result of the type and size of lumber it can provide. The ability of South Africa and Australia to undertake a forestation program, with the expectation of a high degree of success, constitutes the greatest future threat to the British Columbia sawmills. If the consumers in Australia Increasingly accept the inferior grade of lumber domestically produced from radiata pine, a larger demand may also develop for the import of this commodity from New Zealand. Both of these changes would reduce the demand for British Columbia lumber. The Coast contributed the largest volume to the increased trade with the United States (1947-1957), but sales from this source have not expanded as rapidly or as steadily as those from the Interior. For both source areas the United States markets, in order of decreasing importance, are the Interior, the Atlantic ports, and the Pacific ports. The Coast Is the major supplier of all but the interior United States market where, because of its shorter rail connections, Interior British Columbia became the main source. The relative importance to British Columbia producers of these three market areas, and also the Canadian provincial markets, can be partially explained in terms of their alternate sources of supply, proximity, population, timber reserves, and lumber production. With its pronounced expansion of sales to Western Canada, the Interior became the major provincial shipper to the domestic market. Coast manufacturers have lost in relative importance, because they cannot compete on the unstable lumber market which has been created by Interior marketing practices. The clears and high quality, large dimensional British Columbia lumber sold domestically come mainly from the Coast, whereas common lumber comes primarily from the Interior. The relative size of the Canadian markets in decreasing order, British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Quebec, the Atlantic Provinces and the Territories. The Importance of consumer proximity to the source of production is clearly pointed out in Canada where the lumber output of each province provides the major source of competition to outside sources of supply. The trends and distribution of British Columbia lumber trade were not static, because the evaluation of supply and demand by both producers and consumers is continually changing. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

The main aspect of this study -was to analyze the changes which occurred in the British market between 1935 and the present. Changes have been manifold and have caused noteworthy fluctuations in the lumber export-import trade between British Columbia and the United Kingdom. The period under review was divided into five parts: pre-war (1936-1939), war (1940-1945), post-war (1946-1949), period after the devaluation of the pound sterling (1950-1952) and the present (1953-1954). Two additional chapters were included, one dealing with the future export trends, and the other treating briefly the historical growth of the lumber industry and its part in the provincial economy. A comparison was included of the mechanical and physical properties of Douglas fir, western hemlock, western red cedar and Sitka spruce and those of European whitewood and redwood. Housing activity in the United Kingdom was treated in detail throughout the thesis. The housing problem has been acute and will remain so in the next decade. Large quantities of softwood lumber are consumed in housing. Although the amount of lumber used per dwelling-unit decreased from 10-1/2 cubic metres to 7-1/2 cubic metres during the war, under the control system, it is expected to reach its former level on the anticipation that larger houses are to be built. During the pre-war period lumber exports from British Columbia increased remarkably, being larger by eightfold in 1936 than in 1931, and by twelvefold in 1939 than in 1931. The substantial housing program, preferential tariffs, trade promotion work and European Timber Exporters1 quota system, as well as British Columbia's lumber prices, contributed to the increased lumber exports to the United Kingdoms. During the war British Columbia's lumber played an important role in Great Britain. Total imports dropped to 25 percent of the prewar level and British Columbia supplied over fifty percent of them. The home production of softwood lumber increased about five times over pre-war level, reaching a peak in 1942 (344,000 standards). Timber control reduced consumption and controlled imports. The post-war reconstruction program in the United Kingdom caused heavy buying in British Columbia. In 1947, 31 percent of total British softwood lumber imports originated in this province. The dollar shortage in 1948 and 1949 forced the United Kingdom to decrease imports from British Columbia. The devaluation of the pound sterling made British Columbia's lumber expensive when comparing it with Russian and Scandinavian lumber. Increased prices and the inability to get lumber from Sweden and Finland after the outbreak of the Korean war, however, caused larger buying (about 400,000 standards) in British Columbia during 1951 and 1952. The present situation has been influenced by the decontrol of softwood lumber consumption in the United Kingdom which took place in November, 1953. The consumption is estimated to reach about 1,400,000 standards in 1954. An amount of 350,000 standards would be a fair share to be shipped from this province annually to the United Kingdom. A notable feature of the present is the willingness of Russia to export lumber (250,000 standards in 1954) to the United Kingdom. The import requirements of Great Britain are estimated to be 1,200,000 standards in I960 representing little more, than half of the pre-war level. They will have to be imported from outside Europe, mainly from Russia and British Columbia. Although this province is a source of high quality lumber, it is recommended that the British market be developed mainly for lower quality lumber by means of reasonable prices, and care in production and shipping. United Kingdom imports from British Columbia will depend upon its dollar purchasing power. This could be increased by two-way trade between Great Britain and Canada. During the period under review proportionally more and more western hemlock was shipped to Great Britain. The ratio between Douglas fir and western hemlock dropped from 1 to 7 of pre-war, to 1 to 4 in wartime and 1 to 2 in 1952. Since there is more mature western hemlock timber than Douglas fir on the coast from where the future exports are expected such a change in favour of western hemlock is an important achievement. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

Supervisor: Professor J. H. G. Smith The economic accessibility of the forest depends on the value of forest products in the market place and the total of all costs involved in getting them there. Where these costs equal the value of the products, the margin of economic operation occurs. At any point in time, a certain set of technological, social, and economic conditions prevail, which serves to define this boundary. However, it is not always clear just what the effect on the economic margin will be if a change in any of these factors takes place. This in turn increases the difficulty experienced by those who seek to plan for the most efficient and beneficial long term use of the forest, since neither the physical amount nor the monetary value of the forest resource can be adequately determined in economic terms. This thesis has examined the nature of technological change in the logging sector of the forest industry, taking particular notice of both the rate of change and of its effect upon economic accessibility of the forest. The resulting need for more factual information for resource planning was discussed, with the emphasis being placed upon the area of logging costs. A mathematical model of the highlead logging system, suitable for simulation on electronic computers, was developed to illustrate the type of information required, and how it may be used in the determination of forest accessibility. Also, economic analysis was applied to the problem of logging layout and road spacing, where it was shown that the value of the marginal return from each input activity must be equal for the optimum, or least cost condition, to exist. The usefulness of the cost analysis techniques was demonstrated in an example comparing the performance of the highlead and skyline logging systems on a standardized setting. This demonstrated that the latter system was competitive at a road construction cost of about $6 per lineal foot and over, while the former was the more economical below that value. Also, it brought out the fact that skyline systems can contribute in the future to an extension of the margin of operations in coastal British Columbia, and especially so if various technical improvements can be anticipated. A method for combining inventory data, logging productivity and cost relationships, and log market prices through the use of logging models was described, using an example from the University of British Columbia Research Forest. It was observed that refinements of this method could lead to a satisfactorily accurate and flexible definition of the economically accessible timber resource. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

This paper reports upon an investigation conducted into the movement of softwood lumber from British Columbia to the United States during the years 1955 to 1962. The principal method used in the course of the study was an examination of the briefs and statements submitted to the United States Tariff Commission during hearings held in Washington, D.C, in October 1962. In order to keep the material within the context of current events, some space was devoted to a brief summary of pertinent political and economic occurances in both the United States and Canada during the last part of 1962 and the first half of 1963. Thereafter six chapters are devoted to comparisons between forests and extraction, conversion, and distribution costs in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and in the province of British Columbia. Basically the same type of forest is found in these two regions, but the utilization and development of the areas have been different, as have been the competitive factors which have arisen in the areas. Many of the pertinent data have been put into tabular form for easy reference. The penultimate chapter summarizes the briefs and statements submitted by the interested United States lumber dealers, shippers, and producers, and by the Council of Forest Industries of British Columbia, which represented the British Columbia lumber men, at the United States Tariff Commission hearings. The conclusions reached as a result of this investigation were (1) there is a shortage of domestic softwood lumber in the United States which can best be filled by British Columbia lumber imports, (2) British Columbia lumber producers have an advantage over Pacific Northwest producers with regard to stumpage costs, (3) British Columbia lumber producers have no advantage over Pacific Northwest producers with regard to conversion costs, (4) Distribution costs greatly favour British Columbia lumber producers with regard to water-borne lumber, and slightly favour American Pacific Northwest lumber producers with regard to railborne shipments, (5) the exclusion of the Pacific Northwest lumber producers from the Puerto Rican lumber market illustrates the impact of the Jones Act restrictions on the United States lumber industry, (6) in addition to the cost advantages which the British Columbia producers have in the United States Atlantic Coast market, they enjoy intangible advantages which may be characterized as marketing techniques which have created good will for Canadian producers in the American markets, and (7) United States softwood lumber producers in the Pacific Northwest could improve their competitive position in the Domestic market by internal reforms, although they were unable to have imposed on their behalf prohibitive tariffs or quotas. Finally, several suggestions as to possible areas for internal reform are put forward. / Business, Sauder School of / Graduate

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2001. / Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 135-145). Also available on the Internet.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2001. / Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 135-145). Also available on the Internet.