The role of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the regulation of peripheral thyroid function in non-mammalian species is still poorly understood. Thyroxine (T₄), the principal hormone released from the thyroid gland in response to TSH stimulation, circulates with a robust daily rhythm in the sciaenid fish, red drum. Previous research has suggested that the red drum T₄ cycle is circadian in nature, driven by TSH secretion in the early photophase and inhibited by T₄ feedback in the early scotophase. To determine whether TSH is produced in a pattern consistent with driving this T₄ cycle, I developed quantitative real time RT-PCR (qPCR) techniques to quantify the daily cycle of expression of the pituitary TSH subunits GSU[alpha], and TSH[beta]. I found that pituitary TSH expression cycled inversely to, and 6-12 hours out of phase with, the T₄ cycle, consistent with the hypothesis that TSH secretion drives the T₄ cycle. To examine the potential role of deiodinases in negative feedback regulation of this TSH cycle, I also utilized qPCR to assess the pituitary expression patterns of the TH activating enzyme outer-ring deiodinase (Dio2) and the TH deactivating enzyme inner ring deiodinase (Dio3). Whereas Dio2 was not expressed with an obvious daily cycle, Dio3 was expressed in the pituitary mirroring the TSH cycle. These results are consistent with T₄ negative feedback on TSH and suggest that TH inactivation by pituitary cells is an important component of the negative feedback system. To further examine the TH regulation of this Dio3 cycle, I developed an immersion technique to administer physiological doses of T₃ and T₄ in vivo. Both hormones persist in static tank water for at least 40 hours. Immersion in 200ng/ml T₄ significantly increased both plasma T₄ and T₃ within physiological ranges above control at 4.5 hours. Immersion in 100ng/ml T₃ increased plasma T₃ within physiological ranges over control by 22 hours while significantly decreasing plasma T₄ below control, presumably through inhibition of TSH secretion. T₄ also significantly inhibited the expression of the TSH [alpha] and [beta] subunits at 4.5 and 22 hours of immersion whereas T₃ immersion significantly inhibited the expression of the [alpha] and [beta] subunits of TSH by 22 hours. Both Dio2 and Dio3 expression were significantly diminished by T3 and T₄ at 22 hours. Inhibition of circulating THs with the goitrogen methimazole significantly increased the expression of TSH. These results indicate that both T₄ and T₃ are capable of negative feedback regulation of TSH expression in red drum on a time scale consistent with the T₄ daily cycle, and further support Dio3 destruction of THs in the pituitary, potentially regulated by circulating T₄, as a critical component of negative feedback on TSH. This study supports the importance of central mechanisms acting through pituitary TSH secretion in regulating thyroid function in red drum.

There is a growing interest in assessing the neurotoxic potential and endocrine disrupting properties of perfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs). Several studies have reported in vitro and in vivo effects related to neuronal development, neural cell differentiation, pre- and post- natal development and behaviour. PFC exposure altered hormone levels (e.g. thyroid hormone, estrogen, and testosterone) and the expression of hormone-responsive genes in mammalian and aquatic species. Hormone-mediated events are critical in central nervous system development and function, especially those controlled by thyroid hormones (THs). The studies presented in this thesis are the first to assess the effects of PFCs on primary cultures of neuronal cells in two avian species; the domestic chicken (Gallus domesticus) and herring gull (Larus argentatus). The following TH-responsive genes were examined using real-time RT-PCR: type II iodothyronine 5’-deiodinase (D2), D3, transthyretin (TTR), neurogranin (RC3), octamer motif binding factor (Oct-1), and myelin basic protein (MBP). Several PFCs were shown to alter mRNA expression levels of genes associated with the TH pathway in avian neuronal cells. It was determined that short-chained PFCs (<8 carbons) altered the expression of TH-responsive genes to a greater extent than long-chained PFCs (≥8 carbons). Although several significant changes in mRNA expression were observed in TH-responsive genes following PFC exposure in chicken embryonic neuronal (CEN) cells (Chapter 2), there were fewer changes in herring gull embryonic neuronal (HGEN) cells (Chapter 3). The mRNA levels of D2, D3, TTR, and RC3 were altered following treatment with several short-chained PFCs in CEN cells. Oct-1 and RC3 expression were induced following treatment with several short-chained PFCs in HGEN cells. These studies are the first to report that PFC exposure alters mRNA expression in primary cultures of avian neuronal cells and provide insight into the possible mechanisms of action of PFCs in the avian brain.

Brominated flame retardants (BFR) such as hexachlorocyclopentadienyl-dibromocyclooctane (HCDBCO), bis(2-ethylhexyl)tetrabromophthalate (BEHTBP), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) are contaminants of environmental concern. These BFRs are replacement alternatives for some of the major production BFRs, which have been restricted from the marketplace due to their adverse health effects. Their presence in environmental matrices, including wild birds, suggests they should be tested for possible toxic effects. BFR alternatives have been detected in the eggs of colonial fish-eating birds, suggesting maternal transfer during ovogenesis and the potential for these chemicals to bioaccumulate through the food chain. However, information regarding the toxicity of HCDBCO, BEHTBP, BTBPE and DBDPE exposure in birds is lacking. This thesis consisted of a combined in vitro/in ovo approach to determine: 1) the concentration-dependent effects of these four BFR alternatives in chicken embryonic hepatocytes (CEH), and 2) the dose-dependent effects of HCDBCO and BTBPE in chicken embryos following injection into the air cell of eggs prior to incubation. Changes in the mRNA expression levels of genes previously found to be responsive to other BFRs were assessed in CEH and liver tissue, in addition to examining overt toxicity (i.e. cytotoxicity, pipping success). None of the BFRs tested were cytotoxic up to 60 µM HCDBCO, 60 µM BEHTBP, 1.4 µM BTBPE or 0.2 µM DBDPE in CEH. Injection doses up to 50 µg/g egg HCDBCO and 10 µg/g egg BTBPE had no effect on embryonic pipping success. The accumulation of HCDBCO and BTBPE was variable in liver and did not follow a linear uptake pattern with respect to injection dose, due in part to difficulties with the solubility of these chemicals in the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) vehicle. In, CEH, HCDBCO caused a decrease in CYP1A4/5 mRNA at all concentrations tested, while CYP2H1 and CYP3A37 were induced only at 10 µM. In contrast, only TTR mRNA was down-regulated in hepatic tissue at all injection concentrations of HCDBCO. The highest concentration of BTBPE induced CYP1A4/5 mRNA to 115- and 18-fold in CEH, and 6.5- and 1.8-fold in liver tissue. In vitro and in ovo exposure to BTBPE caused a concentration-dependent decrease in DIO3 mRNA, while CYP3A37 was down-regulated 2-fold at 10 µg/g in liver tissue. In CEH, DBDPE induced CYP1A4/5 mRNA to a maximum of 29- and 59-fold at 0.2 µM, and increases in DIO1 mRNA and decreases in CYP3A37 mRNA were also observed. None of the gene targets were responsive to BEHTBP exposure in CEH. This is the first study to report on the toxicological and molecular effects of HCDBCO, BEHTBP, BTBPE and DBDPE in an avian species. Using this combined in vitro/in ovo approach has permitted the characterization of these four BFR alternatives by defining possible mechanisms of biological action in a model avian species, the chicken.

Nicotine's rewarding effects are mediated through distinct subunits of nAChRs, encoded by different nicotinic cholinergic receptor (CHRN) genes and expressed in discrete regions in the brain. In the present study, we aimed to test the associations between rare variants at CHRN genes and nicotine dependence (ND), and alcohol dependence (AD). A total of 26,498 subjects with nine different neuropsychiatric disorders in 15 independent cohorts, which were genotyped on Illumina, Affymetrix, or PERLEGEN microarray platforms, were analyzed. Associations between rare variants (minor allele frequency (MAF) <0.05) at CHRN genes and nicotine dependence, and alcohol dependence were tested. The mRNA expression of all Chrn genes in whole mouse brain and 10 specific brain areas was investigated. All CHRN genes except the muscle-type CHRNB1, including eight genomic regions containing 11 neuronal CHRN genes and three genomic regions containing four muscle-type CHRN genes, were significantly associated with ND, and/or AD. All of these genes were expressed in the mouse brain. We conclude that CHRNs are associated with ND (mainly) and AD, supporting the hypothesis that the full catalog of ND/AD risk genes may contain most neuronal nAChRs-encoding genes.

The hormone glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) is important in the regulation of intestinal growth and blood flow in nonruminant animals. However, no research reports the existence of GLP-2 in ruminants. Therefore, this dissertation examined the existence of GLP-2 and its receptor, their response to physiological stimuli, and its ability to induce gastrointestinal growth and intestinal blood flow in ruminants. Experiments 1 and 2 established the gastrointestinal distribution of mRNA for proglucagon (the GLP-2 precursor) and the GLP-2 receptor. Furthermore, these experiments determined the effects of changing dietary energy intake on plasma GLP-2 concentrations and proglucagon and GLP-2 receptor mRNA expression. Experiment 3 examined the effect of exogenous bovine GLP-2 on splanchnic blood flow, splanchnic nutrient flux, and gastrointestinal growth. This research shows that ruminants possess a functional GLP-2 signaling system that responds to nutrient ingestion. Based on observed receptor distribution and growth changes with GLP-2 treatment, GLP-2 targets the small intestine and does not affect forestomach or large intestinal growth. Increases in ileal proglucagon mRNA expression and plasma GLP-2 with increasing energy intake demonstrate that GLP-2 responds to physiologic changes in nutrient intake and can be relevant to feeding practices. Furthermore, observed increases in small intestinal growth and blood flow with GLP-2 suggest that it could substantially affect the capacity of the gastrointestinal tract for nutrient absorption. Modification of GLP-2 through diet could allow for improvements in nutrient utilization and animal productivity. This research also has important implications for use of GLP-2 for human disease therapy as the observed downregulation in the blood flow response to 10-d GLP-2 administration has never been reported in any species prior to this dissertation. This research systematically characterized and evaluated the potential role of GLP-2 in the control of gastrointestinal growth and splanchnic blood flow in ruminants. While it extends the knowledge of hormonal control of the gastrointestinal tract in ruminants, it also adds crucial information to the larger body of work investigating the actions of GLP- 2. This dissertation research has contributed to the groundwork necessary to enable the use of GLP-2 in improving the health and productivity of a diverse group of mammalian species.

Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) are added to polyurethane foams in a variety of industrial and consumer products to prevent flame ignition. The gradual release of these flame retardants (FRs) from such products leads to contamination of various abiotic and biotic media, including wild birds. Recent studies demonstrated endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP, including alteration of circulating thyroid hormone (TH) levels. The TH-pathway is essential for normal growth and development in birds. There are limited data on the toxicological effects of TCPP and TDCPP in avian species and, prior to this work, no study has examined their effects in avian embryos. This M.Sc. thesis investigates the developmental, molecular and biochemical effects of TCPP and TDCPP in chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) embryos via egg injection studies. TCPP delayed pipping at doses ≥9.24 μg/g, both TCPP and TDCPP reduced embryo growth at the highest dose (51.6 μg TCPP/g and 45 μg TDCPP/g), and TDCPP decreased free plasma thyroxine and gallbladder size at 7.64 μg/g and 45 μg/g, respectively. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to measure changes in mRNA levels of hepatic genes that were responsive to these FRs in a previous in vitro study. TCPP dysregulated the expression of TH-responsive genes and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (cytochrome P450s; CYPs), whereas TDCPP only affected CYPs. Less than 1% of the administered TCPP or TDCPP was detected in egg contents following 19 days of incubation, indicating extensive metabolism of the parent compounds. DNA microarrays were used to perform a global transcriptional analysis on liver samples from embryos that exhibited adverse effects following TDCPP injection. 47 differentially expressed genes were identified at the 45 μg/g dose. Functional analysis revealed that immune function and lipid and steroid metabolism were major targets of TDCPP toxicity and indicated a state of cholestatic liver/biliary fibrosis. Since the TH-pathway is a key regulator of metabolic homeostasis, its disruption early in development is a potential cause of the observed adverse effects. This thesis demonstrates, for the first time, developmental and endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP in an avian species and attempts to link phenotypic changes to molecular-level disruptions in hopes to improve the understanding of their modes of action.

Thyroid hormones (THs) are important hormones involved in developmental processes, including foetal brain maturation. THs are also involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. One in three people in Canada are considered to have some form of thyroid disorder. One reason for the high level of thyroid disorders may be the increasing amount of anthropogenic chemicals released into the environment that affect normal hormone action. Amphibian metamorphosis is completely dependent on TH and provides a model to study such chemicals. This thesis uses the Rana catesbeiana tadpole as a model to study potential TH disrupting chemicals by developing a novel screening assay called the cultured tail fin biopsy assay, or the “C-fin” assay. The C-fin assay uses tail biopsies from premetamorphic tadpoles, Taylor-Kollros stage VI-VIII. The biopsies are cultured in serum-free media along with the test chemical for 48 hours. QPCR is used to measure the mRNA steady-state levels of selected gene transcripts. Two TH-responsive gene transcripts were measured: the up-regulated gene transcript, thyroid hormone receptor β (TRβ) and the down-regulated gene transcript, Rana larval keratin type I (RLKI). Heat-shock protein 30 (HSP30) and catalase (CAT) were used as indicators of cellular stress. Another model system used in this thesis is rat pituitary cells, or GH3 cells. QPCR was used to measure the mRNA steady-state levels of three TH-responsive genes growth hormone (GH), deiodinase I (DIOI), and prolactin (PRL); heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) was used as an indicator of cellular stress. Nanoparticles, used in various consumer products, were one class of chemicals examined. Using the C-fin assay, nanosilver and quantum dots (QDs) caused perturbations in TH-signalling and also showed signs of cellular stress. There was no overt toxicity observed as was determined by the normalizer, house-keeping gene transcript, ribosomal protein L8. The GH3 cells also detected TH disrupting effects by both nanosilver and QDs; however, nanosilver did not appear to cause cellular stress whereas QDs did. Nitrate and nitrite, major waterway contaminants, were also examined and there were no TH-perturbations observed using the C-fin assay. Finally, two antimicrobials used in many consumer products, triclocarban (TCC), triclosan (TCS) and its metabolite, methyl-TCS (mTCS) were examined using both the C-fin assay and GH3 cells. Both the C-fin assay and the GH3 cells determined mTCS to be more potent than TCS in disrupting TH action. TCC also caused perturbations in TH-signalling as well as causing a significant amount of cellular stress. Overall the C-fin assay and the GH3 cells proved to be excellent models in studying the potential disruptors of the TH axis. The C-fin assay and GH3 cells detected novel TH disruptors and gave further insight into already known disruptors of the TH axis.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T16:24:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PGCA10MA063.pdf: 806269 bytes, checksum: d98ad588b52836b1be3fce9b0b39e24e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-17 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Embryo cryopreservation is an important tool that allows the storage of genetic material for long time, without loss of functional activity or genetic damage. Cryopreservation of in vivo-produced embryos is well established and provides similar results than those obtained after fresh embryos transfer. However, in vitro-produced (IVP) bovine embryos are easily damaged by conventional methods of cryopreservation, resulting in low survival rates after re-warming. Such sensitivity seems to be related to an excessive amount of lipid in the embryos cytoplasm during in vitro development. This might occur due to serum containing medium cultured embryos. Mechanical removal of lipid droplets can improve survival of early developmental stages embryos after cryopreservation. Nevertheless, delipidation method are laborious and time-consuming, besides altering embryo development after transfer to the recipients. Therefore, studies have searched for non invasive and less laborious techniques to reduce the amount of cytoplasmic lipids of bovine IVP embryos, thus improving their cryotolerance. Trans-10, cis-12 CLA, a conjugated isomer of linoleic can inhibit the fatty acid synthesis, thus decreasing the amount of lipid in several human and animal cells. It is known that lipid synthesis reduction involve down-regulation of mRNA expression of lipogenic enzymes associated with fat synthesis. Studies showed that addition of t10, c12 CLA to culture media, can reduce lipid content of bovine IVP embryos, improving their cryotolerance. Therefore, this study evaluated two CLA isomers on cryotolerance of IVP bovine embryos, as well as the enzymes acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCa), stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD1) and fatty acid synthase (FASN) mRNA expression of these embryos. In Experiment 1, embryos were cultured in media with increasing concentrations of trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomer: control group (0 &#956;M), 50CLA group (50 &#956;M), 100CLA group (100 &#956;M) and 200CLA group (200 &#956;M), looking for the higher concentration that does not negatively affect embryo development. In Experiment 2, zygotes were cultured in medium containing 100 &#956;M (determined in Experiment 1) of different CLA isomers: control (CLA free) group, t10, c12 CLA group, c9, t11 CLA group and Mixture (50% c9, t11 CLA + 50% t10, c12) group. In Experiment 3, zygotes were allocated in 2 groups: CLA group, containing 100 &#956;M of t10, c12 CLA isomer (determined in Experiment 2) and control (CLA free) group. Blastocysts were separated according to their stage (Bx or Bl) and subjected to vitrification or freezing. As viability criteria, cleavage and blastocyst rates were assessed after IVC and reexpanding and hatching rates were assessed after re-warming. Cell counting and mRNA expression of the ACCa, SCD1 and FASN enzymes were also assessed. The highest concentration of t10, c12 CLA that did not impair blastocyst rates was 100&#956;M.In Experiment 2, the highest hatching rate after re-warming was obtained in c9, t11 group, vitrified at Bx stage (68.6%), not differing from the other treatments vitrified at this stage. The lowest hatching rate was obtained in Mixture group, vitrified at Bl stage (8.0%), not differing from the groups t10, c12 and c9, t11, vitrified at the same stage. In all treatments, Bx stage embryos showed higher viability than Bl stage embryos, except for the Control group, in whose the viability was similar. In Experiment 3, the highest hatching rate was obtained in Bx stage Control vitrified group (67.4%), which was similar to the Bx stage vitrified CLA group. The xv lowest hatching rate was observed in Bl stage frozen CLA group (10.3%), not differing from the other cryopreserved treatments at the same stage. In all frozen groups, despite CLA addition, hatching rates were all similar. There was also no difference in cell counting or mRNA expression of the enzymes ACCa, SCD1 and FASN, among embryos.Under the conditions of this study, the addition of CLA isomers t10, c12 and c9, t11 to culture media does not improve cryotolerance of IVP bovine embryos, and the isomer t10, c12 CLA does not influences the cell number and mRNA expression of enzymes ACCa, SCD1 and FASN / A criopreservação de embriões é uma importante ferramenta que permite o armazenamento de material genético por período prolongado, sem causar perda de atividade funcional ou alterações genéticas nessas estruturas. A criopreservação de embriões gerados in vivo está bem estabelecida e proporciona resultados muito próximos aos obtidos após a transferência de embriões frescos. Já os embriões bovinos produzidos in vitro (PIV) são extremamente sensíveis aos métodos convencionais de criopreservação, apresentando reduzidas taxas de sobrevivência após o reaquecimento. Essa sensibilidade parece estar relacionada ao acúmulo excessivo de lipídeos no citoplasma dos embriões durante o desenvolvimento in vitro, principalmente quando o cultivo é realizado em meios adicionados de soro. Estudos realizados com embriões em estágios iniciais de desenvolvimento evidenciaram que a remoção física das gotas lipídicas é capaz de aumentar a tolerância destes embriões à criopreservação. Contudo, o método de delipidação é demasiadamente trabalhoso e demorado, além de alterar o potencial de desenvolvimento dos embriões após a transferência para as receptoras. Dessa forma, os estudos têm buscado métodos não invasivos e menos trabalhosos, que reduzam a quantidade de lipídeos no citoplasma dos embriões bovinos PIV, melhorando assim a sua criotolerância. O trans-10, cis-12 CLA, um isômero conjugado do ácido linoleico, é capaz de inibir a síntese de ácidos graxos, diminuindo o teor lipídico em diversos tecidos de animais e humanos. Sabe-se que um dos mecanismos pelos quais este isômero exerce esse efeito é através da diminuição da expressão de RNAm de enzimas responsáveis pela síntese de lipídeos. Estudos mostraram que a adição do t10, c12 CLA ao meio de cultivo pode reduzir o acúmulo lipídico de embriões bovinos PIV, aumentando a sua criotolerância. Assim, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito dos dois principais isômeros do CLA na criotolerância de embriões bovinos PIV e adicionalmente a expressão de RNAm das enzimas acetil-CoA carboxilase (ACCa), estearoil-CoA dessaturase (SCD1) e ácido graxo sintase (FASN) desses embriões. No Experimento 1, embriões foram cultivados em meio com concentrações crescentes do isômero t10, c12 CLA: grupo controle (0 &#956;M), grupo 50CLA (50 &#956;M), grupo 100CLA (100 &#956;M) e grupo 200CLA (200 &#956;M), buscando a maior concentração que não afete o posterior desenvolvimento embrionário. No Experimento 2, os zigotos foram cultivados em meio com 100 &#956;M, (concentração apontada no Experimento 1) de diferentes isômeros de CLA, sendo: grupo controle, sem adição de CLA, grupo t10, c12 CLA, grupo c9, t11 CLA e grupo Mistura, com 50% de cada isômero. No Experimento 3, os zigotos foram distribuídos em 2 grupos: grupo CLA, contendo 100 &#956;M do isômero t10, c12 CLA (determinado no Experimento 2) e grupo controle, sem CLA. Os blastocistos obtidos foram separados em função do estágio (Bx ou Bl) e submetidos ao processo de vitrificação ou congelamento. Como critérios de viabilidade foram avaliados as taxas de clivagem e de blastocistos após o cultivo, e de re-expansão e eclosão após o reaquecimento. Ainda, foi determinada a densidade celular e a expressão de RNAm das enzimas ACCa, SCD1 e FASN destes embriões. A maior concentração de t10, c12 CLA que não reduziu a taxa de blastocistos foi a de 100&#956;M. No Experimento 2, a maior taxa de eclosão após o reaquecimento foi a do grupo c9, t11 vitrificado no estágio de Bx xiii (68,6%), que não diferiu dos demais tratamentos vitrificados neste estágio. A menor taxa de eclosão foi a do grupo Mistura (c9, t11 + t10, c12, no estágio de Bl (8,0%), que não diferiu dos grupos t10, c12 e c9, t11, vitrificados no mesmo estágio. Em todos os tratamentos, embriões em estágio de Bx apresentaram taxas superiores aos Bl, com exceção do grupo Controle, cujas taxas foram similares. No Experimento 3, a maior taxa de eclosão foi observada no grupo Controle com Bx vitrificados (67,4%), que não diferiu do grupo CLA, com Bx vitrificados. A menor taxa de eclosão foi a do grupo CLA com Bl congelados (10,3%), que não diferiu dos demais tratamentos criopreservados neste estágio. Nos grupos submetidos ao congelamento, as taxas de desenvolvimento foram semelhantes, independente da exposição ao CLA. Não houve diferença na densidade celular entre os embriões expostos ou não ao t10, c12 CLA, e nem na expressão de RNAm das enzimas ACCa, SCD1 e FASN. Conclui-se que nas condições deste estudo a adição dos isômeros do CLA t10, c12 e c9, t11 ao meio de cultivo não melhora a criotolerância de embriões bovinos PIV, bem como que o isômero t10, c12 CLA, não interfere na densidade celular e na expressão de RNAm das enzimas ACCa, SCD1 e FASN destes embriões

Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) are added to polyurethane foams in a variety of industrial and consumer products to prevent flame ignition. The gradual release of these flame retardants (FRs) from such products leads to contamination of various abiotic and biotic media, including wild birds. Recent studies demonstrated endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP, including alteration of circulating thyroid hormone (TH) levels. The TH-pathway is essential for normal growth and development in birds. There are limited data on the toxicological effects of TCPP and TDCPP in avian species and, prior to this work, no study has examined their effects in avian embryos. This M.Sc. thesis investigates the developmental, molecular and biochemical effects of TCPP and TDCPP in chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) embryos via egg injection studies. TCPP delayed pipping at doses ≥9.24 μg/g, both TCPP and TDCPP reduced embryo growth at the highest dose (51.6 μg TCPP/g and 45 μg TDCPP/g), and TDCPP decreased free plasma thyroxine and gallbladder size at 7.64 μg/g and 45 μg/g, respectively. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to measure changes in mRNA levels of hepatic genes that were responsive to these FRs in a previous in vitro study. TCPP dysregulated the expression of TH-responsive genes and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (cytochrome P450s; CYPs), whereas TDCPP only affected CYPs. Less than 1% of the administered TCPP or TDCPP was detected in egg contents following 19 days of incubation, indicating extensive metabolism of the parent compounds. DNA microarrays were used to perform a global transcriptional analysis on liver samples from embryos that exhibited adverse effects following TDCPP injection. 47 differentially expressed genes were identified at the 45 μg/g dose. Functional analysis revealed that immune function and lipid and steroid metabolism were major targets of TDCPP toxicity and indicated a state of cholestatic liver/biliary fibrosis. Since the TH-pathway is a key regulator of metabolic homeostasis, its disruption early in development is a potential cause of the observed adverse effects. This thesis demonstrates, for the first time, developmental and endocrine-disrupting effects of TCPP and TDCPP in an avian species and attempts to link phenotypic changes to molecular-level disruptions in hopes to improve the understanding of their modes of action.